kansas city
public library
kansas city,
missouri
HANDBOOK
OF
NATURE-STUDY
ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK
SEPTEMBER I, 1854- AUGUST 24, 1930
HANDBOOK
OF
NATURE -STUDY
B r
ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK, B.S., L.H.D.
LATE PROFESSOR OF NATURE-STUDY IN
CORNELL UNIVERSITY
TWENTY-FOURTH EDITION
COMSTOCK PUBLISHING ASSOCIATES
A DIVISION OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY PRESS
ITHACA, NEW YORK
COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY
ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK
COPYRIGHT, 1939, BY
COMSTOCK PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, must
not be reproduced in any form without permission in
writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who
wishes to quote brief passages in a review of the book
24th Edition
Third printing, December, 1944
Fourth printing, March, 1945
Fifth printing, January, 1947
Sixth printing, November, 1947
Seventh printing, March, 1948
Eighth printing, December, 1948
Ninth printing, September, 1950
Tenth printing, September, 1951
Eleventh printing, February, 1952
Twelfth printing, February, 1953
Thirteenth printing, December, 1953
Fourteenth printing, July, 1955
Fifteenth printing, January, 1957
Sixteenth printing, December, 1957
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
BY THE VAIL-BALLOU PRESS, INC., BINCHAMTON, N. Y.
TO
LIBERTY HYDE BAILEY
UNDER WHOSE WISE, STAUNCH, AND INSPIRING LEADERSHIP
THE NATURE-STUDY WORK AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY
HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHED
AND TO MY CO-WORKER
JOHN WALTON SPENCER
WHOSE COURAGE, RESOURCEFULNESS, AND UNTIRING ZEAL
WERE POTENT FACTORS IN THE SUCCESS OF THE CAUSE
THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED
MO. PUBLIC LIBRARY
0 0001 0006140 5
PUBLISHER'S FOREWORD
The publication of the twenty-fourth
edition of the Handbook of Nature-Study
seemed an appropriate time to make cer-
tain revisions which had become press-
ingly necessary, to replace and improve
the illustrations, and to incorporate sug-
gestions which had been received from
many interested friends. Accordingly, the
entire text has been carefully scrutinized,
and has been corrected or elaborated in
the light of the most recent knowledge.
Where the earlier treatment seemed in-
adequate new material has been added,
and Part IV in particular has been much
expanded. New subjects, such as soil con-
servation, have been introduced. We
think it is safe to say that the Handbook
has been well modernized.
But by far the greater part of Mrs.
ComstocFs work proved to be as accurate
and timely in 1939 as in 1911, a striking
tribute to the scientific genius of the
author. In such cases the language of the
earlier text has been preserved, for no
improvement could be made on the
charming style that has won friends in the
tens of thousands. And a careful attempt
has been made throughout to preserve the
method of treatment adopted by Mrs.
Comstock. Perhaps some justification of
this policy is needed. Some readers of the
Handbook have suggested that the new
edition be oriented away from the nature-
study approach, and be made instead to
serve as an introduction to the natural
sciences. For the convenience of readers
who wish preparation for the academic
studies, some scientific classifications and
terminology have been introduced. But
the nature-study approach has been pre-
served. The kernel of that method of
treatment is the study of the organism in
its environment, its relation to the world
about it, and the features which enable it
to function in its surroundings. This study
takes the individual organism, rather than
an abstract phylum or genus, as the point
of departure. Mrs. Comstock believed
that the student found in such a study a
fresh, spontaneous interest which was
lacking in formal textbook science, and
the phenomenal success of her work seems
to prove that she was right. Moreover,
nature-study as Mrs. Comstock conceived
it was an aesthetic experience as well as a
discipline. It was an opening of the eyes
to the individuality, the ingenuity, the
personality of each of the unnoticed life-
forms about us. It meant a broadening of
intellectual outlook, an expansion of
sympathy, a fuller life. Much of this Mrs.
Comstock succeeded in conveying into
her work; and perhaps it is this inform-
ing spirit that is the chief virtue of the
book.
But it should not be thought that
nature-study is not a science. The promis-
ing science of ecology is merely formalized
nature-study; indeed it might be said that
nature-study is natural science from an
ecological rather than an anatomical point
of view. The truth is that nature-study is
a science, and is more than a science; it is
not merely a study of life, but an experi-
ence of life. One realizes, as he reads these
pages, that with Mrs. Comstock it even
contributed to a philosophy of life.
Only the generous efforts of many
specialists made possible the thorough-
going revision of the book. Dr. Marjorie
Ruth Ross assumed in large part the re-
sponsibility for editorial supervision and
co-ordination, and performed most of the
labor of revision and replacement of il-
lustrations. Professor A. H. Wright and
Mrs. Wright made valuable suggestions
and criticisms of the book in general, pro-
vided hitherto unpublished photographs
for the sections on reptiles and amphibi-
ans, and read proof on those sections.
V1I1
Professor Glenn W. Herrick, Professor
J. G. Needhanx and Dr. Grace H. Gris-
wold made suggestions for the revision
of the material on insects, and supplied
illustrations for that section. Professor
E. F. Phillips contributed criticism for the
lesson on bees. Professor A. A. Allen
kindly made suggestions and provided il-
lustrations for the material on birds. Pro-
fessor B. P. Young gave assistance in the
treatment of aquatic life; Dr. W. J. Koster
made suggestions for improving the sec-
tion on fish; and Dr. Emmeline Moore
selected photographs of fish, and on be-
half of the New York State Department
of Conservation gave permission to use
them.
Thanks are due to Professor W. J.
Hamilton, Jr., for criticism of the section
on mammals and for supplying several
photographs; to Professor E. S. Harrison
for aid in revising the lesson on cattle and
supplying illustrations. Mrs. C. N. Stark
made helpful suggestions for the revision
of the lesson on bacteria. Miss Ethel Belk
suggested many revisions in the part on
plants. Professor W. C. Muenscher made
useful criticisms of the section on weeds,
and supplied illustrations. Professor C. H.
Guise revised the portion dealing with
the chestnut tree and Professor Ralph W.
Curtis gave valuable assistance in the re-
vision of the whole section on trees, and
furnished pictures. Professor Joseph Os-
kamp suggested several improvements in
PUBLISHER'S FOREWORD
the text on the apple tree. Mr. William
Marcus Ingram, Jr. prepared the captions
for the illustrations of shells.
Professor H. Ries made extensive re-
visions and additions in the lessons relat-
ing to geology. Professor H. O. Buckman
revised the lesson on soil. Professor A. F.
Gustafson revised the lesson on the
brook, and added material on soil conser-
vation. Professor S. L. Boothroyd not only
revised the old text on the sky, but he also
provided new material and supplied maps
and photographs to illustrate it. Dr. H. O.
Geren made valuable suggestions for the
revision of the text on weather. Miss
Theodosia Hadley supplied material for
the new bibliography; Dr. Eva L. Gordon
revised the bibliography, made numerous
suggestions for revision of other parts of
the text, and provided some of the illustra-
tions.
Dr. F. D. Wormuth acted as literary
editor of the manuscript. Dr. John M.
Raines composed many of the captions
for the new illustrations, and, with Mrs.
Raines, read proof of the entire book.
Many teachers throughout the country
offered constructive criticisms; an attempt
has been made to put them into effect.
To all of these persons the publishers wish
to express most cordial and sincere thanks.
THE PUBLISHERS
ITHACA, NEW YORK
January i, 1939
PREFACE
The Cornell University Nature-Study
propaganda was essentially an agricultural
movement in its inception and its aims;
it was inaugurated as a direct aid to better
methods of agriculture in New York
State. During the years of agricultural de-
pression 1891-1893, the Charities of New
York City found it necessary to help many
people who had come from the rural dis-
tricts — a condition hitherto unknown.
The philanthropists managing the Associ-
ation for Improving the Condition of the
Poor asked, "What is the matter with
the land of New York State that it can-
not support its own population? " A con-
ference was called to consider the situa-
tion to which many people from different
parts of the State were invited; among
them was the author of this book, who
little realized that in attending that meet-
ing the whole trend of her activities would
be thereby changed. Mr. George T.
Powell, who had been a most efficient Di-
rector of Farmers' Institutes of New York
State, was invited to the conference as an
expert to explain conditions and give ad-
vice as to remedies. The situation seemed
so serious that a Committee for the Pro-
motion of Agriculture in New York State
was appointed. Of this committee the
Honorable Abram S. Hewitt was Chair-
man, Mr. R. Fulton Cutting, Treasurer,
Mr. Wm. H. Tolman, Secretary. The
other members were Walter L. Suydam,
Wm. E. Dodge, Jacob H. Schiff, George
T. Powell, G. Howard Davidson, Howard
Townsend, Professor I. P. Roberts, C.
McNamee, Mrs. J. R. Lowell, and Mrs.
A. B. Comstock. Mr. George T. Powell
was made Director of the Department of
Agricultural Education.
At the first meeting of this committee
Mr. Powell made a strong plea for inter-
esting the children of the country in
farming as a remedial measure, and main-
tained that the first step to\vard agricul-
ture was nature-study. It had been Mr.
Powell's custom to give simple agricul-
tural and nature-study instruction to the
school children of every town where he
was conducting a farmers' institute, and
his opinion was, therefore, based upon
experience. The committee desired to see
for itself the value of this idea, and experi-
mental work was suggested, using the
schools of Westchester County as a labo-
ratory. Mr. R. Fulton Cutting generously
furnished the funds for this experiment,
and work was done that year in the West-
Chester schools which satisfied the com-
mittee of the soundness of the project.
The committee naturally concluded that
such a fundamental movement must be a
public rather than a private enterprise;
and Mr. Frederick Nixon, then Chairman
of the Ways and Means Committee of
the Assembly, was invited to meet with
the committee at Mr. Hewitt's home. Mr.
Nixon had been from the beginning of his
public career deeply interested in im-
proving the farming conditions of the
State. In 1894, it was through his influ-
ence and the support given him by the
Chautauqua Horticultural Society under
the leadership of Mr. John W. Spencer,
that an appropriation had been given to
Cornell University for promoting the
horticultural interests of the western
counties of the State. In addition to other
work done through this appropriation,
horticultural schools were conducted un-
der the direction of Professor L. H. Bailey
with the aid of other Cornell instructors
and especially of Mr. E. G. Lodeman;
these schools had proved to be most use-
ful and were well attended. Therefore,
Mr. Nixon was open-minded toward an
educational movement. He listened to the
plan of the committee and after due con-
sideration declared that if this new meas-
lire would surely help the farmers of the
State, the money would be forthcoming.
The committee unanimously decided that
if an appropriation were made for this
purpose it should be given to the Cornell
College of Agriculture; and that year eight
thousand dollars were added to the Cor-
nell University Fund, for Extension
Teaching and inaugurating this work. The
work was begun under Professor I. P.
Roberts; after one year Professor Roberts
placed it under the supervision of Profes-
sor L. H. Bailey, who for the fifteen years
since has been the inspiring leader of the
movement as well as the official head.
In 1896, Mr. John W. Spencer, a fruit
grower in Chautauqua County, became
identified with the enterprise; he had
lived in rural communities and he knew
their needs. He it was who first saw clearly
that the first step in the great work was
to help the teacher through simply
written leaflets; and later he originated the
great plan of organizing the children in
the schools of the State into Junior Nat-
uralists Clubs, which developed a remark-
able phase of the movement. The mem-
bers of these clubs paid their dues by
writing letters about their nature observa-
tions to Mr. Spencer, who speedily be-
came their beloved "Uncle John"; a
button and charter were given for con-
tinued and earnest work. Some years,
30,000 children were thus brought into
direct communication with Cornell Uni-
versity through Mr. Spencer. A monthly
leaflet for Junior Naturalists followed; and
it was to help in this enterprise that Miss
Alice G. McCloskey, the able Editor of
the present Rural School Leaflet, was
brought into the work. Later, Mr. Spencer
organized the children's garden move-
ment by forming the children of the State
into junior gardeners; at one time he had
25,000 school pupils working in gardens
and reporting to him.
In 1899, Mrs. Maw Rogers Miller, who
had proven a most efficient teacher when
representing Cornell nature-study in the
State Teachers* Institutes, planned and
started the Home Nature-Study Course
Leaflets for the purpose of helping the
PREFACE
teachers by correspondence, a work which
fell to the author in 1903 when Mrs.
Miller was called to other fields.
For the many years during which New
York State has intrusted this important
work to Cornell University, the teaching
of nature-study has gone steadily on in the
University, in teachers' institutes, in State
summer schools, through various publica-
tions and in correspondence courses.
Many have assisted in this work, notably
Dr. W. C. Thro, Dr. A. A. Allen, and
Miss Ada Georgia. The New York Edu-
cation Department with Charles R. Skin-
ner as Commissioner of Education and
Dr. Isaac Stout as the Director of Teach-
ers7 Institutes co-operated heartily with
the movement from the first. Later with
the co-operation of Dr. Andrew Draper,
as Commissioner of Education, many of
the Cornell leaflets have been written
with the special purpose of aiding in
carrying out the New York State Syllabus
in Nature-Study and Agriculture.
The leaflets upon which this volume is
based were published in the Home Na-
ture-Study Course during the years 1903-
1911, in limited editions and were soon
out of print. It is to make these lessons
available to the general public that this
volume has been compiled. While the
subject matter of the lessons herein given
is essentially the same as in the leaflets,
the lessons have all been rewritten for the
sake of consistency, and many new les-
sons have been added to bridge gaps and
make a coherent whole.
Because the lessons were written dur-
ing a period of so many years, each lesson
has been prepared as if it were the only
one, and without reference to others. If
there is any uniformity of plan in the les-
sons, it is due to the inherent qualities of
the subjects, and not to a type plan in the
mind of the writer; for, in her opinion,
each subject should be treated individu-
ally in nature-study; and in her long ex-
perience as a nature-study teacher she has
never been able to give a lesson twice alike
on a certain topic or secure exactly the
same results twice in succession. It should
also be stated that it is not because the
author undervalues physics nature-study
that it has been left out of these lessons,
but because her own work has been always
along biological lines.
The reason why nature-study has not
yet accomplished its mission, as thought-
core for much of the required work in our
public schools, is that the teachers are as
a whole untrained in the subject. The
children are eager for it, unless it is spoiled
in the teaching; and whenever we find a
teacher with an understanding of out-of-
door life and a love for it, there we find
nature-study in the school is an inspira-
tion and a joy to pupils and teacher. It is
because of the author's sympathy with
the untrained teacher and her full com-
prehension of her difficulties and help-
lessness that this book has been written.
These difficulties are chiefly three-fold:
The teacher does not know what there is
to see in studying a planet or animal; she
knows little of the literature that might
help her; and because she knows so little
of the subject, she has no interest in giving
a lesson about it. As a matter of fact, the
literature concerning our common ani-
mals and plants is so scattered that a
teacher would need a large library and al-
most unlimited time to prepare lessons
for an extended nature-study course.
The writer's special work for fifteen
years in Extension teaching has been the
helping of the untrained teacher through
personal instruction and through leaflets.
Many methods were tried and finally
there was evolved the method followed in
this volume: All the facts available and
pertinent concerning each topic have been
assembled in the "Teacher's story" to
make her acquainted with the subject; this
is followed by an outline for observation
on the part of the pupils while studying
the object. It would seem that with the
teacher's story before the eyes of the
teacher, and the subject of the lesson be-
fore the eyes of the pupils with a number
of questions leading them to see the es-
sential characteristics of the object, there
should result a wider knowledge of nature
than is given in this or any other book.
That the lessons are given in a very in-
PREFACE xi
formal manner, and that the style of writ-
ing is often colloquial, results from the
fact that the leaflets upon which the book
is based were written for a correspondence
course in which the communications were
naturally informal and chatty. That the
book is meant for those untrained in sci-
ence accounts for the rather loose termi-
nology employed; as, for instance, the use
of the word seed in the popular sense
whether it be a drupe, an akene, or other
form of fruit; or the use of the word pod
for almost any seed envelope, and many
like instances. Also, it is very likely, that
in teaching quite incidentally the rudi-
ments of the principles of evolution, the
results may often seem to be confused
with an idea of purpose, which is quite
unscientific. But let the critic labor for
fifteen years to interest the untrained
adult mind in nature's ways, before he
casts any stones! And it should be always
borne in mind that if the author has not
dipped deep in the wells of science, she
has used only a child's cup.
For many years requests have been fre-
quent from parents who have wished to
give their children nature interests during
vacations in the country. They have been
borne in mind in planning this volume;
the lessons are especially fitted for field
work, even though schoolroom methods
are so often suggested.
The author feels apologetic that the
book is so large. However, it does not
contain more than any intelligent coun-
try child of twelve should know of his
environment; things that he should know
naturally and without effort, although it
might take him half his life-time to learn
so much if he should not begin before
the age of twenty. That there are incon-
sistencies, inaccuracies, and even blunders
in the volume is quite inevitable. The
only excuse to be offered is that, if through
its use, the children of our land learn early
to read nature's truths with their own
eyes, it will matter little to them what is
written in books.
The author wishes to make grateful ac-
knowledgment to the following people:
To Professor Wilford M. Wilson for his
xii PREFACE
chapter on the weather; to Miss Man- E.
Hill for the lessons on mould, bacteria,
the minerals, and reading the weather
maps; to Miss Catherine Straith for the
lessons on the earthworm and the soil; to
Miss Ada Georgia for much valuable as-
sistance in preparing the original leaflets
on which these lessons are based; to Dean
L. H. Bailey and to Dr. David S. Jordan
for permission to quote their writings; to
Mr. John W. Spencer for the use of his
story on the movements of the sun; to Dr.
Grove Karl Gilbert Dr. A. C. Gill Dr.
Benjamin Duggar, Professor S. H. Gage
and Dr. J. G. Needham for reading and
criticizing parts of the manuscript; to
Miss Eliza Tonks for reading the proof; to
the Director of the College of Agriculture
for the use of the engravings made for the
original leaflets; to Miss Martha Van
Rensselaer for the use of many pictures
from Boys and Girls; to Professor Cyrus
Crosby, and to Messrs. J. T. Lloyd, A. A.
Allen and R. Matheson for the use of
their personal photographs; to the U. S.
Geological Survey and the U. S. Forest
Sendee for the use of photographs; to
Louis A. Fuertes for drawings of birds; to
Houghton Mifflin & Company for the use
of the poems of Lowell, Harte and Lar-
com, and various extracts from Burroughs
and Thoreau; to Small, Maynard & Com-
pany and to John Lane & Company for
the use of poems of John T. Babb; to
Doubleday, Page & Company for the use
of pictures of birds and flowers; and to the
American Book Company for the use of
electrotypes of dragon-flies and astron-
omy. Especially thanks are extended to
Miss Anna C. Stryke for numerous draw-
ings, including most of the initials.
ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK
ITHACA, NEW YORK
July, 1911
CONTENTS
PART I
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
What Nature-Study Is i
What Nature-Study Should Do for
the Child i
Nature-Study as a Help to Health 2
What Nature-Study Should Do for
the Teacher 3
When and Why the Teacher
Should Say " I Do Not Know! " . 3
Nature-Study, the Elixir of Youth 4
Nature-Study as a Help in School
Discipline 4
Relation of Nature-Study to Sci-
ence 5
Nature-Study Not for Drill ... 6
The Child Not Interested in Na-
ture-Study 6
When to Give the Lesson .... 6
Length of the Lesson 6
The Nature-Study Lesson Always
New 7
Nature-Study and Object Lessons . 7
Nature-Study in the Schoolroom . 8
Nature-Study and Museum Speci-
mens 8
Lens, Microscope and Field Glass as
Helps 9
Uses of Pictures, Charts, and Black-
board Drawings 10
Uses of Scientific Names .... 10
The Stow as a Supplement to the
Nature-Study Lesson 11
The Nature-Study Attitude toward
Life and Death 12
Should the Nature-Study Teacher
Teach How to Destroy Life? . . 13
The Field Notebook / 13
The Field Excursion 15
Pets as Nature-Study Subjects . . 15
Correlation of Nature-Study with
Language Work 16
Correlation of Nature-Study and
Drawing 17
Correlation of Nature-Study with
Geography 18
Correlation of Nature-Study with
History 18
Correlation of Nature-Study with
Arithmetic 19
Gardening and Nature-Study ... 20
Nature-Study and Agriculture . . 21
Nature-Study Clubs 22
How to Use This Book 23
PART II
ANIMALS
BIRDS 27
Beginning Bird Study in the Pri-
mary Grades 28
Feathers as Clothing 29
Feathers as Ornament 31
How Birds Fly 33
Migration of Birds 35
Eyes and Ears of Birds 38
Form and Use of Beaks .... 39
Feet of Birds
Songs of Birds ,
Attracting Birds
Value of Birds
Study of Birds' Nests in Winter
Chicken Ways
Pigeons
Canary and the Goldfinch . .
Robin
40
42
43
45
46
47
5°
53
57
XIV
CONTENTS
Bluebird
\\Tiite-brcasted Nuthatch . . .
Chickadee
Downy Woodpecker
Sapsucker
Redheaded Woodpecker . . .
Flicker or Yellow-hammer . . .
Meadowlark
English Sparrow
Chipping Sparrow
Song Sparrow ........
Mockingbird
Catbird
Belted Kingfisher
Screech Owl
Hawks
Birds of Prey and Scavengers . .
Swallows and the Chimney Swift
Hummingbird
Red-winged Blackbird ....
Baltimore Oriole
Crow
Cardinal Grosbeak
Geese
Wild Geese
Game Birds
Turkey
Birds of Marsh and Shore . . .
FISHES
Goldfish . . .
Bullhead . . .
Common Sucker
Shiner ....
Brook Trout . .
Stickleback . .
Sunfish ....
Johnny Darter .
AMPHIBIANS
Tailless Amphibians
Common Toad
Tadpole Aquarium
Spring Peeper or Pickering's
Hyla
Frog
Tailed Amphibians
Newt or Eft
REPTILES
Garter or Garden Snake ....
Milk Snake or Spotted Adder . .
Water Snake
62
65
68
7°
74
76
77
86
89
91
95
97
100
104
106
109
"5
117
120
124
127
130
*33
136
138
142
144
144
148
152
154
156
*59
162
166
170
170
170
177
180
187
187
193
194
197
198
Other Snakes 200
Turtles 204
Lizards 210
MAMMALS 214
Cotton-tail Rabbit 215
Muskrat 219
House Mouse 224
Woodchuck 229
Red Squirrel or Chickaree ... 233
Furry 237
Chipmunk 239
Little Brown Bat 241
Skunk 245
Raccoon 247
Wolf 250
Fox 251
Dogs 254
Cat 260
Goat 266
Sheep 270
Horse 274
Cattle 280
Pig 286
Animals of Zoos and Parks . . . 290
INSECTS 294
Life History and Structure of In-
sects 294
INSECTS OF THE FIELDS AND WOODS 301
Black Swallowtail Butterfly . . 301
Monarch Butterfly 305
Isabella Tiger Moth or Woolly
Bear 310
Cecropia 313
Promethea 317
Cynthia 319
Hummingbird or Sphinx Moths 320
Codling Moth 325
Leaf-miners 329
Leaf-rollers 332
Gall Dwellers 335
Grasshopper 338
Katydid 343
Black Cricket 344
Snowy Tree Cricket 348
Cockroach 350
Aphids or Plant Lice 351
Ant Lion 354
Mother Lacewing and the Aphis
Lion 356
CONTENTS
Housefly 358
Colorado Potato Beetle , . . . 362
Ladybird 364
Firefly 367
Ways of the Ant 369
How to Make a Lubbock Ant-
nest 373
The Ant-nest and What May Be
Seen within It 374
Mud-dauber 378
Yellow Jacket 380
Leaf-cutter Bee 384
Little Carpenter Bee 386
Bumblebee 389
Honeybee 391
Honeycomb . . . 395
Industries of the Hive and the
Observation Hive 396
INSECTS OF THE BROOK AND POND . 400
How to Make an Aquarium for
Insects 400
Dragonflies and Damsel Flies . . 401
Other Aquatic Insects 402
Caddis Worms and the Caddis
Flies
Mosquito
XV
408
411
OTHER
INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS
THAN INSECTS 416
Garden Snail 416
Shells of Florida and the East
Coast 418
Earthworm 422
Crayfish 425
Seashore Creatures 430
Daddy Longlegs or Grandfather
Greybeard 432
Spiders 435
Cobwebs 436
Funnel Web of a Grass Spider . 438
Orb Web 439
Filmy Dome 443
Ballooning Spiders 444
White Crab Spider 445
Howr the Spider Mothers Take
Care of Their Eggs 446
Other Invertebrates 448
PART III
PLANTS
How to Begin the Study of Plants
and Their Flowers 453
Some Needs of Plants 454
How to Teach the Names of the
Parts of a Flower and of the Plant 456
Teach the Use of the Flower ... 457
Flower and Insect Partners .... 457
Relation of Plants to Geography . 458
Seed Germination 458
WILD FLOWERS 460
Hepatica 461
Yellow Adder7 s-Tongue .... 463
Bloodroot 466
Trillium 468
DutchrnanVBreeches and Squir-
rel Com 471
Jack-in-the-Pulpit 473
Violet 476
May Apple or Mandrake .... 479
Bluets 483
Yellow Lady's-Slipper 484
Evening Primrose 488
Milkweed 491
White Water Lily 495
Pondweed 498
Cattail 500
Type Lesson for a Composite
Flower 503
Goldenrod 503
Asters 506
The Jewelweed or Touch-me-
not 508
WEEDS 512
Outline for the Study of a Weed 513
Poison Ivy 5*4
Prevention of Ivy Poisoning . . 514
Curative Treatment for Ivy Poi-
soning 514
Common or Field Buttercup . . 516
Hedge Bindweed 518
XVI
CONTENTS
Dodder
\\Tiite Daisy
Yellow Daisy or Black-eyed Susan
Thistle . .' " . . . .
Burdock
Prickly Lettuce, a Compass
Plant
Dandelion
Pearly Everlasting
Mullein
Teasel
Queen Anne's Lace or Wild Car-
""rot
520
524
527
529
531
53?
537
539
542
GARDEN FLOWERS 546
Crocus 547
Daffodils and Their Relatives . 549
Tulip 552
Pansy 555
Bleeding Heart 558
Poppies 560
California Poppy 563
Nasturtium 566
Bee-Larkspur 568
Blue Flag or Iris 571
Sunflower 574
Bachelors-Button 578
Salvia or Scarlet Sage 579
Petunias 581
Garden or Horseshoe Geranium 585
Sweet Pea 588
CULTIVATED CROP PLANTS .... 591
Clovers 591
Sweet Clover 594
White Clover 596
Maize or Indian Corn .... 598
Cotton Plant 604
Strawberry 608
Pumpkin 611
TREES 618
Parts of the Tree 618
The Way a Tree Grows .... 620
How to Begin Tree Study . . . 622
How to Make Leaf Prints . . . 626
Maples 628
American Elm 634
Oaks 638
Shagbark Hickory 643
Chestnut 645
Horse Chestnut 648
Willows 651
Cottonwood or Carolina Poplar . 655
White Ash 658
Apple Tree 661
How an Apple Grows 665
The Apple 667
Pines 670
Norway Spruce 675
Hemlock 679
Dogwood 680
Velvet or Staghorn Sumac ... 683
Witch Hazel 686
Mountain Laurel 689
FLOWERLESS PLANTS 693
Christmas Fern 693
Bracken 696
How a Fern Bud Unfolds ... 698
Fruiting of the Fern 699
Other Ferns 704
Field Horsetail 706
Hair-cap Moss or Pigeon Wheat 709
Other Mosses and Hepatics . . 712
Mushrooms and Other Fungi . . 714
How Mushrooms Look and How
They Live 716
Puffballs 720
Bracket Fungi 721
Hedgehog Fungi 725
Scarlet Saucer 725
Morels 726
Stinkhorns 727
Molds 727
Bacteria 729
PART IV
EARTH AND SKY
THE BROOK 736
Life in the Brook 739
How a Brook Drops Its Load . 740
ROCKS AND MINERALS 743
Rocks 744
Sedimentary Rocks 745
CONTENTS
Igneous Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks ....
Calcite, Limestone, and Mar-
ble
Minerals
Crystal Growth
Salt
Quartz
Feldspar
Fossils
Mica
THE SOIL
Soil Material
Soil Formation
Kinds of Soil
Soil Experiments
How Valuable Soil Is Lost .
Soil Erosion, an Old Problem
How to Conserve Our Soil .
THE MAGNET
CLIMATE AND WEATHER
Tower of the Winds
Historical
Atmosphere
Air as a Gas
Composition of Air
Pressure of Atmosphere ....
The Barometer
Height of the Atmosphere . . .
Temperature of the Atmosphere
Thermometer Scales in Use . .
Distribution of Temperature and
Pressure
Winds of the World
Storms
Weather Maps
The Principles of Weather Fore-
casting
Forecasts Based on Weather
Maps
Maps, Where Published and
How Obtained
746
748
748
75°
751
753
754
755
756
758
760
761
762
763
764
766
769
77°
776
780
781
781
783
783
783
785
787
788
790
79°
791
791
798
799
799
800
800
Value of Weather Sendee . . .
How to Read Weather Maps . .
Highs and Lows
Observations Concerning the
Weather
Weather Proverbs
xvn
801
801
806
807
WATER FORMS 808
THE SKIES
The Story of the Stars
How to Begin Star Study ....
Circumpolar Constellations . .
The Polestar and the Dippers . .
Cassiopeia's Chair, Cepheus, and
the Dragon
Winter Stars
Orion
Aldebaran and the Pleiades .
The Two Dog Stars, Sirius and
Procyon
Capella and the Heavenly Twins
Stars of Summer
Regulus
Arcturus
The Crown
Spica
Vega
Antares
Deneb or Arided
Altair
The Sun
Comets and Meteors
Shooting Stars
The Relation between the Tropic
of Cancer and the Planting of
the Garden
The Ecliptic and the Zodiac . .
The Sky Clock
Equatorial Star Finder
The Relations of the Sun to the
Earth
How to Make a Sundial ....
The Moon
815
815
818
818
818
821
823
823
826
829
830
831
831
832
832
832
832
833
833
838
839
841
843
844
847
851
853
855
BIBLIOGRAPHY
NATURE STUDY IN GENERAL ... 863
General Information and Stories 863
Essays and Travel 866
Poetry
History and Biography
Textbooks and Readers
870
870
872
XV111
CONTENTS
Books for Parents and Teachers 874
Magazines and Periodicals . . . 875
ANIMAL LIFE 877
Animals in General 877
Mammals 880
Birds 884
Reptiles, Amphibians, and Fish 888
Insects and Other Invertebrates 890
PLANT LIFE 895
Plants in General 895
Wild Flowers and Weeds . . . 897
Flowerless Plants 898
Garden Flowers and Cultivated
Crop Plants 899
Trees7 Shrubs, and Woody Vines 901
EARTH AND SKY 904
The Earth and Its Life .... 904
Weather and Climate 906
Stars and Sky 907
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
909
INDEX 911
FULL-PAGE PLATES
BIRDS OF PREY AND SCAVENGERS . . 107
Sparrow Hawks — Snowy Owl —
Screech Owl — Herring Gull —
Black Vulture — Audubon's Ca-
racara
GAME BIRDS 137
Ring-necked Pheasants — Wild
Turkey — Ruffed Grouse? Nest of
— Eastern Bobwhite or Quail —
Dusky Grouse — Woodcock on
Nest"
143
BIRDS OF MARSH AND SHORE . . .
Shoveller — Mallard — Lesser
Scaup Ducks — Pied-billed Grebe
— Spotted Sandpiper — Wilson's
Plover — King Rail — Common
Tern — American Egret — Ameri-
can Bittern
TAILLESS AMPHIBIANS 185
American Bell Toad — Oak Toad
— Narrow Mouth Toad — Can-
yon or Spotted Toad — Great
Plains Toad — Spadefoot Toad
— Hammond's Spadefoot —
Canadian or Winnipeg Toad —
Yosemite Toad
TAILED AMPHIBIANS 191
Spotted Salamander — Red Sala-
mander — Marbled Salamander
— Mud Puppy — Tiger Salaman-
der — Slimy Salamander — Slen-
der Salamander — Cave Salaman-
der
SNAKES I 201
Ribbon Snake — Coral Snake —
Rubber Boa — Rough Green
Snake — Timber Rattlesnake —
Desert Gopher Snake or Bull
Snake — Ring-necked Snake —
Sidewinder or Horned Rattle-
snake
SNAKES II 203
Pike-headed Tree Snake or Ari-
zona Long-headed Snake — Pilot
Black Snake — Copperhead —
Boyle's King Snake or Boyle's
Milk Snake — Gray Pilot Snake
— Water Moccasin or Cotton-
mouth — California Lyre Snake
— Southern Hognose Snake
LIZARDS I 211
Banded Gecko — Chameleon —
Fence Lizard — Glass Snake or
Legless Lizard — Alligator Liz-
ard or Plated Lizard — Sonoran
Skink — Gila Monster
LIZARDS II 213
Regal Horned Toad — Horned
Toad — Male Fence Lizard —
Mountain Boomer or Collared
Lizard — Whip-tail or Race Run-
ner — Chuck-walla
ANIMALS OF Zoos AND PARKS . . . 291
Rhinoceros — Hippopotamus —
Kangaroo — Zebra — Malay Tiger
— Polar Bear — Nubian Gi-
raffe — Bactrian or Two-humped
Camel — Wapiti or American
« Elk " - Virginia or White-
tailed Deer
AQUATIC INSECTS 403
"Stone Fly — May Fly — Back
Swimmer — Water Boatman —
Water Walking Stick — Water
Scorpion — Water Bug — Giant
Water Bug or Electric-Light Bug
— Water Strider — Dobson —
Predacious Diving Beetle — Div-
ing Beetle — Water Scavenger
XX
FULL-PAGE PLATES
Beetle — Whirligig Beetle - Wa-
ter Penny or Riffle Beetle —
Black Fly — Crane Fly — Drone
Fly
SHELLS OF FLORIDA AND THE EAST
COAST 419
Crown Melongena — Brown-
mouth Cymatium — White-
mouth Cymatium — Lined Mu-
rex — Mossy Ark — Black Lace
Murex — Apple Murex —
White-spike Murex — Moon
Shell - Rock Worm Shell -
Mouse Cone — Florida Cone —
Giant Band Shell - Lettered
Olive — Netted Olive — Mottled
Top Shell — Ridged Chione —
Beaming Scallop — - Vase Shell —
Ponderous Ark — Spiny Pearl
Shell — Little Red Murex —
Rose Euglandina — Calico Scal-
lop — Volcano Shell
SEASHORE CREATURES 431
Sea Urchin — Fiddler Crab —
Common Starfish — Egg Cases
or Fisherman's Purses — Notch-
side Shell — Sand Dollar — Giant
Whelk — Great Ark Shell -
Star Coral — Sand Crab — Jelly-
fish
INVERTEBRATES 449
Water Spider — House Centi-
pede — Scorpion — Millipede
— Water Sow Bug — Fairy
Shrimps — Tadpole Shrimp —
Dog Louse — Scud — Water
Flea — Pleurocera — Copepod —
Fresh-water Limpet — Gonioba-
sis — Vivipara — Wheel Snails —
Campeloma — Valvata — By-
thinia — Amnicola -— Paludes-
trina — Common Pond Snail —
Pouch Snail -— Fingernail Clam
—-Paper-shell Mussel
FERNS 705
Purple Cliff Brake — Climbing
Fern — Grape Fern — Hart's-
Tongue — Hay-scented Fern
— Maidenhair Fern — Inter-
rupted Fern — Walking Leaf
Fern — Cinnamon Fern — Royal
or Flowering Fern
MOSSES AND HEPATICS 713
Broom Moss — Common Hair-
Cap, Bird Wheat, or Pigeon
Wheat Moss — Common Fern
Moss — Awned Hair-Cap Moss
— Plume Moss — Purple-fringed
Riccia — True Liverwort
FOSSILS 757
Hypohippus — Brachiopods —
Crane Fly - Trilobites — Cy-
cads — Crinoid or Sea Lily —
Brachiopod — Dinosaur Tracks
PART I
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
WHAT NATURE-STUDY Is
Nature-study is, despite all discussions
and perversions, a study of nature; it con-
sists of simple, truthful observations that
may? like beads on a string, finally be
threaded upon the understanding and
thus held together as a logical and har-
monious whole. Therefore, the object of
the nature-study teacher should be to cul-
tivate in the children powers of accurate
observation and to build up within them
understanding.
WHAT NATURE-STUDY SHOULD Do
FOR THE CHILD
First, but not most important, nature-
study gives the child practical and help-
ful knowledge. It makes him familiar with
Ralph W. Curtis
nature's ways and forces, so that he is not
so helpless in the presence of natural mis-
fortune and disasters.
Nature-study cultivates the child's im-
agination, since there are so many wonder-
ful and true stories that he may read with
his own eyes, which affect his imagination
as much as does fairy lore; at the same
time nature-study cultivates in him a per-
ception and a regard for what is true, and
the power to express it. All things seem
possible in nature; yet this seeming is
always guarded by the eager quest of what
is true. Perhaps half the falsehood in the
world is due to lack of power to detect
the truth and to express it. Nature-study
aids both in discernment and in expression
of things as they are.
Nature-study cultivates in the child a
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
love of the beautiful; it brings to him early
a perception of color, form, and music. He
sees whatever there is in his environment,
whether it be the thunder-head piled up
in the western sky, or the golden flash of
the oriole in the elm; whether it be the
purple of the shadows on the snow, or
the azure glint on the wing of the little
butterfly. Also, what there is of sound, he
Louis Agassiz Fuertes Council, Boy Scouts of America
A nature hike
hears; he reads the music score of the bird
orchestra, separating each part and know-
ing which bird sings it. And the patter of
the rain, the gurgle of the brook, the sigh-
ing of the wind in the pine, he notes and
loves and becomes enriched thereby.
But, more than all, nature-study gives
the child a sense of companionship with
life out-of-doors and an abiding love of
nature. Let this latter be the teacher's
criterion for judging his or her work. If
nature-study as taught does not make the
child love nature and the out-of-doors,
then it should cease. Let us not inflict
permanent injury on the child by turning
him away from nature instead of toward
it. However, if the love of nature is in the
teacher's heart, there is no danger; such
a teacher, no matter by what method,
takes the child gently by the hand and
walks with him in paths that lead to the
seeing and comprehending of what he
may find beneath his feet or above his
head. And these paths, whether they lead
among the lowliest plants, or whether to
the stars, finally converge and bring the
wanderer to that serene peace and hope-
ful faith that is the sure inheritance of all
those who realize fully that they are work-
ing units of this wonderful universe.
NATURE-STUDY AS A HELP TO HEALTH
Perhaps the most valuable practical les-
son the child gets from nature-study is a
personal knowledge that nature's laws are
not to be evaded. Wherever he looks, he
discovers that attempts at such evasion
result in suffering and death. A knowledge
thus naturally attained of the immuta-
bility of nature's " must " and " shall not "
is in itself a moral education. The realiza-
tion that the fool as well as the transgres-
sor fares ill in breaking natural laws makes
for wisdom in morals as well as in hygiene.
Out-of-door life takes the child afield
and keeps him in the open air, which not
only helps him physically and occupies
his mind with sane subjects, but keeps
him out of mischief. It is not only during
childhood that this is true, for love of
nature counts much for sanity in later life.
This is an age of nerve tension, and the
relaxation which comes from the comfort-
ing companionship found in woods and
fields is, without doubt, the best remedy
for this condition. Too many men who
seek the out-of-doors for rest at the present
time, can only find it with a gun in hand.
To rest and heal their nerves they must
go out and try to kill some unfortunate
creature — the old, old story of sacrificial
blood. Far better will it be when, through
properly training the child, the man shall
be enabled to enjoy nature through seeing
how creatures live rather than watching
them die. It is the sacred privilege of
nature-study to do this for future genera-
tions and for him thus trained, shall the
words of Longfellow's poem to Agassiz
apply:
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY 3
And he wandered away and away, with
Nature the dear old nurse,
Who sang to him night and day, the
rhymes of the universe.
And when the way seemed long, and his
heart began to fail,
She sang a more wonderful song, or told
a more wonderful tale.
WHAT NATURE-STUDY SHOULD Do FOR
THE TEACHER
During many years, I have been watch-
ing teachers in our public schools in their
conscientious and ceaseless work; and so
far as I can foretell, the fate that awaits
them finally is either nerve exhaustion or
nerve atrophy. The teacher must become
either a neurasthenic or a " clam."
I have had conversations with hundreds
of teachers in the public schools of New
York State concerning the introduction
of nature-study into the curriculum, and
most of them declared, " Oh, we have not
time for it. Every moment is full now! "
Their nerves were at such a tension that
with one more thing to do they must fall
apart. The question in my own mind dur-
ing these conversations was always, how
long can she stand it! I asked some of
them, " Did you ever try a vigorous walk
in the open air in the open country every
Saturday or every Sunday of your teach-
ing year? " " Oh no! " they exclaimed in
despair of making me understand. " On
Sunday we must go to church or see our
friends and on Saturday we must do our
shopping or our sewing. We must go to
the dressmaker's lest we go unclad, we
must mend, and darn stockings; we need
Saturday to catch up."
Yes, catch up with more cares, more
worries, more fatigue, but not with more
growth, more strength, more vigor, and
more courage for work. In my belief, there
are two and only two occupations for Sat-
urday afternoon or forenoon for a teacher.
One is to be out-of-doors and the other
is to lie in. bed, and the first is best.
Out in this, God's beautiful world, there
is everything waiting to heal lacerated
nerves, to strengthen tired muscles, to
please and content the soul that is torn
to shreds with duty and care. To the
teacher who turns to nature's healing, na-
ture-study in the schoolroom is not a trou-
ble; it is a sweet, fresh breath of air blown
across the heat of radiators and the noi-
some odor of overcrowded small human-
it}'. She who opens her eyes and her heart
nature-ward even once a week finds na-
ture-study in the schoolroom a delight and
an abiding joy. What does such a one
find in her schoolroom instead of the ter-
rors of discipline, the eternal watching and
eternal nagging to keep the pupils quiet
and at work? She finds, first of all, com-
panionship with her children; and second,
she finds that without planning or going
on a far voyage, she has found health and
strength.
WHEN AND WHY THE TEACHER SHOULD
SAY " I Do NOT KNOW "
No science professor in any university,
if he be a man of high attainment, hesi-
tates to say to his pupils, " I do not know/'
if they ask for information beyond his
knowledge. The greater his scientific rep-
utation and erudition, the more readily,
simply, and without apology he says this.
He, better than others, comprehends how
vast is the region that lies beyond man's
present knowledge. It is only "the teacher
in the elementary schools who has never
received enough scientific training to re-
veal to her how little she does know, who
feels that she must appear to know every-
thing or her pupils will lose confidence
in her. But how useless is this pretense, in
nature-study! The pupils, whose younger
eyes are much keener for details than hers,
will soon discover her limitations and then
their distrust of her will be real.
In nature-study any teacher can with
honor say, " I do not know "; for perhaps
the question asked is as yet unanswered
by the great scientists. But she should not
let lack of knowledge be a wet blanket
thrown over her pupils' interest. She
should say frankly, " I do not know; let
us see if we cannot together find out this
mysterious thing. Maybe no one knows it
as yet, and I wonder if you will discover
it before I do/7 She thus conveys the right
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
she is never allowed to forget that she
knows them, and finally her interests be-
come limited to what she knows.
pupils feel the thrill and zest of in- After all what is the chief sign of
•r £__ x- :n <,i^w* fk/^r r^crv-H- growing old? Is it not me reeling mat
we know all there is to be known? It is
impression, that only a little about the in-
tricate life of plants and animals is yet
known; and at the same time she makes
vestigation. Nor will she lose their respect
bv doing this, if she does it in the right .
soirit For three rears I had for com- not years which make people old; it is
rades'in my walks afield two little chil- ™+* -A « "™***™ "* ^"™* W1''™
dren and they kept me busy saying, " I
do not know." But they never lost confi-
dence in me or in my knowledge; they
Leonard "K. Beyer
Long -spurred violet
simply gained respect for the vastness
of the unknown.
The chief charm of nature-study would
be taken away if it did not lead us through
the border-land of knowledge into the
realm of the undiscovered. Moreover, the
teacher,, in confessing her ignorance and
at the same time her interest in a sub-
ject, establishes between herself and her
pupils a sense of companionship which re-
lieves the strain of discipline, and gives
her a new and intimate relation with her
pupils which will surely prove a potent
element in her success. The best teacher
is always one who is the good comrade of
her pupils.
NATURE-STUDY, THE ELIXIR OF YOUTH
The old teacher is too likely to be-
come didactic, dogmatic, and " bossy ?> if
she does not constantly strive with her-
self. Why? She has to be thus five days in
the week and, therefore, she is likely to
be so seven. She knows arithmetic, gram-
mar, and geography to their uttermost,
ruts, and a limitation of interests. When
wre no longer care about anything except
our own interests, we are then olcl? it
matters not whether our years be twenty
or eighty. It is rejuvenation for the
teacher, thus growing old, to stand ig-
norant as a child in the presence of one
of the simplest of nature's miracles —
the formation of a crystal, the evolution
of the butterfly from the caterpillar, the
exquisite adjustment of the silken lines
in the spider's orb web. I know how to
"make magic" for the teacher who is
growing old. Let her go out with her
youngest pupil and reverently watch with
him the miracle of the blossoming violet
and say: "Dear Nature, I know naught
of the wondrous life of these, your small-
est creatures. Teach me! " and she will
suddenly find herself young.
NATURE-STUDY AS A HELP IN
SCHOOL DISCIPLINE
Much of the naughtiness in school is
a result of the child's lack of interest in
his work, augmented by the physical in-
action that results from an attempt to sit
quietly. The best teachers try to obviate
both of these causes of misbehaviour
rather than to punish the naughtiness that
results from them. Nature-study is an aid
in both respects, since it keeps the child
interested and also gives him something
to do.
In the nearest approach to an ideal
school that I have ever seen, for children
of second grade, the pupils were allowed,
as a reward of merit, to visit the aquaria
or the terrarium for periods of five min-
utes, which time was given to the blissful
observation of the fascinating prisoners.
The teacher also allowed the reading of
stories about the plants and animals un-
der observation to be regarded as a re-
ward of merit. As I entered the school-
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
room, eight or ten of the children were
at the windows watching eagerly what
was happening to the creatures confined
there in the various cages. There was a
mud aquarium for the frogs and sala-
manders, an aquarium for fish, many
small aquaria for insects, and each had
one or two absorbedly interested specta-
tors who were quiet, well-behaved, and
were getting their nature-study lessons
in an ideal manner. The teacher told me
that the problem of discipline was solved
by this method, and that she was rarely
obliged to rebuke or punish. In many
other schools, watching the living crea-
tures in the aquaria or terraria has been
used as a reward for other work well done.
THE RELATION OF NATURE-STUDY
TO SCIENCE
Nature-study is not elementary science
as so taught, because its point of attack
is not the same; error in this respect has
caused many a teacher to abandon nature-
study and many a pupil to hate it. In
elementary science the work begins with
the simplest animals and plants and pro-
gresses logically through to the highest
forms; at least this is the method pursued
in most universities and schools. The ob-
ject of the study is to give the pupils an
outlook over all the forms of life and their
relation one to another. In nature-study
the w7ork begins with any plant or crea-
ture which chances to interest the pupil.
It begins with the robin when it comes
back to us in March, promising spring;
or it begins with the maple leaf which
flutters to the ground in all the beauty of
its autumnal tints. A course in biological
science leads to the comprehension of
all kinds of life upon our globe. Nature-
study is for the comprehension of the
individual life of the bird, insect, or plant
that is nearest at hand.
Nature-study is perfectly good science
within its limits, but it is not meant to
be more profound or comprehensive than
the capabilities of the child's mind. More
than all, nature-study is not science be-
littled as if it were to be looked at through
the reversed opera glass in order to bring
it down small enough for the child to
play with. Nature-study, as far as it goes,
is just as large as is science for " grown-
ups.77 It may deal with the same subject
matter and should be characterized by
the same accuracy. It simply does not go
so far.
To illustrate: If we are teaching the
science of ornithology, we take first the
Archaeopteryx, then the swimming and
scratching birds, and finally reach the song
birds, studying each as a part of the
whole. Nature-study begins with the robin
because the child sees it and is interested
in it, and notes the things about the
habits and appearance of the robin that
may be perceived by intimate observa-
An aquarium
Hugh Spencer
tion. In fact, he discovers for himself all
that the most advanced book of ornithol-
ogy would give concerning the ordinary
habits of this one bird; the next bird
studied may be the turkey in the barn-
yard, or the duck on the pond, or the
screech owl in the spruces, if any of these
happen to impinge upon his notice and
interest. However, such nature-study
makes for the best of scientific ornithol-
ogy7, because by studying the individual
birds thus thoroughly, the pupil finally
studies a sufficient number of forms so
that his knowledge, thus assembled, gives
him a better comprehension of birds as
a whole than could be obtained by the
routine study of them. Nature-study
does not start out with the classification
given in books, but in the end it builds
up in the child's mind a classification
which is based on fundamental knowl-
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
edge; it is a classification like that evolved
by the first naturalists, because it is built
on careful personal observations of both
form and life.
NATURE-STUDY NOT FOR DRILL
If nature-study is made a drill, its peda-
gogic value is lost. When it is properly
taught, the child is unconscious of mental
effort or that he is suffering the act of
teaching. As soon as nature-study be-
comes a task, it should be dropped; but
how could it ever be a task to see that
the sky is blue, or the dandelion golden,
or to listen to the oriole in the elm!
Stanley Mulaik
A young entomologist
THE CHILD NOT INTERESTED
IN NATURE-STUDY
What to do with the pupil not inter-
ested in nature-study subjects is a prob-
lem that confronts many earnest teachers.
Usually the reason for this lack of inter-
est is the limited range of subjects used
for nature-study lessons. Often the teacher
insists upon flowers as the lesson subject,
when toads or snakes would prove the key
to the door of the child's interest. But
whatever the cause may be, there is only
one right way out of this difficulty: The
child not interested should be kept at
his regular school work and not admitted
as a member of the nature-study class,
where his influence is always demoraliz-
ing. He had much better be learning his
spelling lesson than learning to hate na-
ture through being obliged to study sub-
jects in which he is not interested. In
general, it is safe to assume that the pu-
pil's lack of interest in nature-study is
owing to a fault in the teacher's method.
She may be trying to fill the child's mind
with facts when she should be leading
him to observe these for himself, which
is a most entertaining occupation for the
child. It should always be borne in mind
that mere curiosity is always impertinent,
and that it is never more so than when
exercised in the realm of nature. A genu-
ine interest should be the basis of the
study of the lives of plants and lower
animals. Curiosity may elicit facts, but
only real interest may mold these facts
into wisdom.
WHEN TO GIVE THE LESSON
There are two theories concerning the
time when a nature-study lesson should
be given. Some teachers believe that it
should be a part of the regular routine;
others have found it of greatest value if
reserved for that period of the school
day when the pupils are weary and rest-
less, and the teacher's nerves strained to
the snapping point. The lesson on a tree,
insect, or flower at such a moment affords
immediate relief to everyone; it is a men-
tal excursion, from which all return re-
freshed and ready to finish the duties of
the day.
While I am convinced that the use of
the nature-study lesson for mental re-
freshment makes it of greatest value, yet
I realize fully that if it is relegated to
such periods, it may not be given at all.
It might be better to give it a regular
period late in the day, for there is strength
and sureness in regularity. The teacher
is much more likely to prepare herself for
the lesson, if she knows that it is required
at a certain time.
THE LENGTH OF THE LESSON
The nature-study lesson should be
short and sharp and may vary from ten
minutes to a half hour in length. There
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
should be no dawdling; if it is an observa-
tion lesson, only a few points should be
noted and the meaning for the observa-
tions made clear. If an outline be sug-
gested for field observation, it should be
given in an inspiring manner which shall
make each pupil anxious to see and read
the truth for himself. The nature story
when properly read is never finished; it
is always at an interesting point, " con-
tinued in our next/'
The teacher may judge as to her own
progress in nature-study by the length
of time she is glad to spend in reading
from nature's book what is therein writ-
ten. As she progresses, she finds those
hours spent in studying nature speed
faster, until a day thus spent seems but
an hour. The author can think of nothing
she would so gladly do as to spend days
and months with the birds, bees, and flow-
ers with no obligation to tell what she
should see. There is more than mere in-
formation in hours thus spent. Lowell
describes them well when he says:
Those old days when the balancing of a
yellow butterfly o'er a thistle bloom
Was spiritual food and lodging for the
whole afternoon.
THE NATURE-STUDY LESSON
ALWAYS NEW
A nature-study lesson should not be
repeated unless the pupils demand it. It
should be done so well the first time that
there is no need of repetition, because it
has thus become a part of the child's con-
sciousness. The repetition of the same les-
son in different grades was, to begin with,
a hopeless incubus upon nature-study.
One disgusted boy declared, " Darn ger-
mination! I had it in the primary and last
year and now I am having it again. I
know all about germination." The boy's
attitude was a just one; but if there had
been revealed to him the meaning of
germination, instead of the mere process,
he would have realized that until he had
planted and observed every plant in the
world he would not know all about ger-
mination, because each seedling has its
own interesting story. The only excuse
for repeating a nature-study lesson is in
recalling it for comparison and contrast
with other lessons. The study of the violet
will naturally bring about a review of the
pansy; the dandelion, of the sunflower;
the horse, of the donkey; the butterfly, of
the moth.
NATURE-STUDY AND OBJECT LESSONS
The object lesson method was intro-
duced to drill the child to see a thing
accurately, not only as a whole but in de-
tail, and to describe accurately what he
saw. A book or a vase or some other ob-
ject was held up before the class for a
Leonard K. Beyer
A mountain brook
moment and then removed; afterwards
the pupils described it as perfectly as pos-
sible. This is an excellent exercise and the
children usually enjoy it as if it were a
game. But if the teacher has in mind the
same thought when she is giving the na-
ture-study lesson, she has little compre-
hension of the meaning of the latter and
the pupils will have less. In nature-study,
it is not desirable that the child see all
the details, but rather those details that
have something to do with the life of the
creature studied; if he sees that the grass-
hopper has the hind legs much longer
than the others, he will inevitably note
that there are two other pairs of legs and he
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
will in the meantime have come into an il-
luminating comprehension of the reason
the insect is called "grasshopper." The
child should see definitely and accurately
all that is necessary for the recognition
of a plant or animal; but in nature-study,
the observation of form is for the purpose
of better understanding life. In fact, it is
form linked with life, the relation of *' be-
ing " to " doing."
NATURE-STUDY IN THE SCHOOLROOM
Many subjects for nature-study lessons
may be brought into the schoolroom.
Whenever it is possible, the pupils should
themselves bring the material, as the col-
lecting of it is an important part of the
eEI
A. I. Root Co.
An observation beehive
lesson. There should be in the school-
room conveniences for caring for the little
prisoners brought in from the field. A
terrarium and breeding cages of different
kinds should be provided for the insects,
toads, and little mammals. Here they may
live in comfort, when given their natural
food, while the children observe their
interesting ways. The ants' nest and the
observation hive yield fascinating views
of the marvelous lives of the insect so-
cialists, while the cheerful prisoner in the
bird cage may be made a constant illus-
tration of the adaptations and habits of
all birds. The aquaria for fishes, tadpoles,
and insects afford the opportunity for con-
tinuous study of these water creatures and
are a never-failing source of interest to the
pupils, while the window garden may be
made not only an ornament and an aes-
thetic delight, but a basis for interesting
study of plant growth and development.
A schoolroom thus equipped is a place
of delight as well as enlightenment to
the children. Once, a boy whose luxurious
home was filled with all that money could
buy and educated tastes select, said of a
little nature-study laboratory which was
in the unfinished attic of a school build-
ing, but which was teeming with life, " I
think this is the most beautiful room in
the world."
NATURE-STUDY AND MUSEUM
SPECIMENS
The matter of museum specimens is
another question for the nature-study
teacher to solve, and has a direct bearing
on an attitude toward taking life. There
are many who believe the stuffed bird or
the case of pinned insects have no place
in nature-study; and certainly these
should not be the chief material. But
let us use our common sense; the boy
sees a bird in the woods or field and does
not know its name; he seeks the bird in
the museum and thus is able to place it
and read about it and is stimulated to
make other observations concerning it.
Wherever the museum is a help to the
study of life in the field, it is well and
good. Some teachers may give a live les-
son from a stuffed specimen, and other
teachers may stuff their pupils with facts
about a live specimen; of the two, the
former is preferable.
There is no question that making a col-
lection of insects is an efficient way of
developing the child's powers of close
observation, as well as of giving him man-
ual dexterity in handling fragile things.
Also it is a false sentiment which attrib-
utes to an insect the same agony at be-
ing impaled on a pin that we might suffer
at being thrust through by a stake. The
insect nervous system is far more con-
veniently arranged for such an ordeal than
ours; and, too, the cyanide bottle brings
immediate and painless death to the in-
sects placed within it; moreover, the in-
sects usually collected have short lives
anyway. So far as the child is concerned,
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
Mounted twigs and nuts. These may be put
in the bottom, of a shallow box with a sheet of
cellophane pasted over the top
he is thinking of his collection of moths
or butterflies and not at all of taking life;
so it is not teaching him to wantonly
destroy living creatures. However, an in-
discriminate encouragement of the mak-
ing of insect collections cannot be ad-
vised. There are some children who will
profit by it and some who will not, and
unquestionably the best kind of study of
insects is watching their interesting ways
while they live.
To kill a creature in order to prepare
it for a nature-study lesson is not only
wrong but absurd, for nature-study has to
do with life rather than death, and the
form of any creature is interesting only
when its adaptations for life are studied.
But again, a nature-study teacher may be
an opportunist; if without any volition
on her part or the pupils', a freshly killed
specimen comes to hand, she should
make the most of it. The writer remem-
bers most illuminating lessons from a par-
tridge that broke a window and its neck
simultaneously during its flight one win-
ter night, a yellow hammer that killed
itself against an electric wire, and a musk-
rat that turned its toes to the skies for
no understandable reason. In each of
these cases the creature's special physical
adaptations for living its own peculiar life
were studied, and the effect was not the
study of a dead thing, but of a successful
and wonderful life.
THE LENS, MICROSCOPE, AND FIELD
GLASS AS HELPS IN NATURE-STUDY
In elementary grades, nature-study
deals with objects which the children can
see with the naked eye. However, a lens
is a help in almost all of this work be-
cause it is such a joy to the child to gaze
at the wonders it reveals. There is no les-
son given in this book which requires
more than a simple lens for seeing the
most minute parts discussed. An excel-
lent lens may be bought for a dollar,
and a fairly good one for fifty cents or
even twenty-five cents. The lens should
be chained to a table or desk where it
may be used by the pupils at recess. This
gives each an opportunity for using it and
obviates the danger of losing it. If the
pupils themselves own lenses, they should
be fastened by a string or chain to the
pocket.
A microscope has no legitimate part in
nature-study. But if there is one available,
it reveals so many wonders in the com-
monest objects that it can ofttimes be
Bausch & Lornb Optical Co.
Hand lenses
1O
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
Bausch & Lomb Optical Co.
A field glass
made a source of added interest. For
instance, thus to see the scales on the
butterfly's wing affords the child pleasure
as well as edification. Field or opera
glasses, while indispensable for bird study,
are by no means necessary in nature-
study. However, the pupils will show
greater interest in noting the birds' colors
if they are allowed to make the observa-
tions with the help of a glass.
USES OF PICTURES, CHARTS, AND
BLACKBOARD DRAWINGS
Pictures alone should never be used
as the subjects for nature-study lessons,
but they may be of great use in illustrat-
ing and illuminating a lesson. Books well
illustrated are more readily compre-
hended by the child and are often very
helpful to him, especially after his inter-
est in the subject is thoroughly aroused.
If charts are used to illustrate the lesson,
the child is likely to be misled by the
size of the drawing, which is also the case
in blackboard pictures. However, this er-
ror may be avoided by fixing the atten-
tion of the pupil on the object first. If
the pupils are studying the ladybird and
have it in their hands, the teacher may
use a diagram representing the beetle as
a foot long and it will still convey the
idea accurately; but if she begins with
the picture, she probably can never con-
vince the children that the picture has
anything to do with the insect.
In making blackboard drawings illus-
trative of the lesson, it is best, if possible,
to have one of the pupils do the drawing
in the presence of the class; or, if the
teacher does the drawing, she should hold
the object in her hand while doing it
and look at it often so that the children
may see that she is trying to represent it
accurately. Taking everything into con-
sideration, however, nature-study charts
and blackboard drawings are of little use
to the nature-study teacher,
THE USES OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES
Disquieting problems relative to scien-
tific nomenclature always confront the
teacher of nature-study. My own practice
has been to use the popular names of spe-
cies, except in cases where confusion might
ensue, and to use the scientific names for
anatomical parts. However, this matter is
of little importance if the teacher bears in
mind that the purpose of nature-study
is to know the subject under observation
and to learn the name incidentally.
Common tree frog or tree toad, Hyla versi-
cplor versicolor. Another species, Hyla cru-
cifer, is also often catted the tree frog and tree
toad. Common names, then} will not distin-
guish these amphibians one from another;
the scientific names must be applied
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
If the teacher says, " I have a pink he-
patica. Can anyone find me a blue one? "
the children, who naturally like grownup
words, will soon be calling these flowers
hepaticas. But if the teacher says, " These
flowers are called hepaticas. Now please
everyone remember the name. Write it
in your books as I write it on the black-
board, and in half an hour I shall ask you
again what it is," the pupils naturally look
upon the exercise as a word lesson and its
real significance is Ipst. This sort of nature-
study is dust and ashes and there has been
too much of it. The child should never
be required to learn the name of any-
thing in the nature-study work; but the
name should be used so often and so
naturally in his presence that he will
learn it without being conscious of the
process.
THE STORY AS A SUPPLEMENT TO
THE NATURE-STUDY LESSON
Many of the subjects for nature lessons
can be studied only in part, since but one
phase may be available at the time. Often,
especially if there is little probability that
the pupils will find opportunity to com-
plete the study, it is best to round out
their knowledge by reading or telling the
story to supplement the facts which they
have discovered for themselves. This
story should not be told as a finality or
as a complete picture but as a guide and
inspiration for further study. Always
leave at the end of the story an interroga-
tion mark that will remain aggressive and
insistent in the child's mind. To illus-
trate: Once a club of junior naturalists
brought me rose leaves injured by the leaf-
cutter bee and asked me why the leaves
were cut out so regularly. I told them the
story of the use made by the mother bee
of these oval and circular bits of leaves
and made the account as vital as I was
able; but at the end I said, " I do not
know which species of bee cut these
leaves. She is living here among us and
building her nest with your rose leaves,
which she is cutting every day almost
under your very eyes. Is she then so
11
much more clever than you that you can-
not see her or find her nest? " For two
years following this lesson I received let-
ters from members of this club. Two car-
penter bees and their nests were discov-
ered by them and studied before the
mysterious leaf-cutter was finally ferreted
The leaf-cutter bee
out. My story had left something inter-
esting for the young naturalists to dis-
cover. The children should be impressed
with the fact that the nature story is
never finished. There is not a weed or
an insect or a tree so common that the
child, by observing carefully, may not see
things never yet recorded in scientific
books; therefore the supplementary story
should be made an inspiration for keener
interest and further investigation on the
part of the pupil. The supplementary
story simply thrusts aside some of the
obscuring underbrush, thus revealing
more plainly the path to further knowl-
edge.
THE NATURE-STUDY ATTITUDE
TOWARD LIFE AXD DEATH
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
but become a vegetarian, and even then
there might arise refinements in this ques-
tion of taking life; she might have to con-
Perhaps no greater danger besets the sider the cruelty to asparagus in cutting
pathwav of the natuie-studv teacher than it off in plump infancy, or the ethics of
he question involved in her pupils7 atti- devouring in the turnip the food laid up
tude toward life and death. To inculcate by the mother plant to perfect her seed.
In fact, a most rigorous diet would be
forced upon the teacher who should re-
fuse to sustain her own existence at the
cost of life; and if she should attempt to
in the child a reverence for life and yet
to keep him from becoming mawkish
and morbid is truly a problem. It is al-
most inevitable that the child should be-
come sympathetic with the life of the
animal or plant studied, since a true un-
derstanding of the life of any creature
creates an interest which stimulates a de-
teach the righteousness of such a diet
she would undoubtedly forfeit her posi-
tion; and yet what is she to do! She will
soon find herself in the position of a cer-
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sire to protect this particular creature and tain lady who placed sheets of sticky tty-
. i . /• i •» i •*. r . • _ "iT *__ —,-..r^^»- st*-xMi<t-t.ir[ T~»/3-r "Ir-!+T»T*l/an f1/^ Tirl Tlf»r M mi Qf*
make its life less hard. Many times, within
my own experience, have I known boys,
who began by robbing birds' nests for
egg collections, to end by becoming most
zealous protectors of the birds. The hu-
mane qualities within these boys budded
and blossomed in the growing knowledge
of the lives of the birds. At Cornell Uni-
versity, it is a well-known fact that those
students who turn aside so as not to crush
the ant, caterpillar, or cricket on the pave-
ment are almost invariably those that are
studying entomology7; and in America it
is the botanists themselves who are lead-
ing the crusade for flower protection.
Thus, the nature-study teacher, if she
does her work well, is a sure aid in in-
culcating a respect for the rights of all
living beings to their own lives; and she
needs only to lend her influence gently
in this direction to change carelessness
to thoughtfulness and cruelty to kindness.
But with this impetus toward a reverence
for life, the teacher soon finds herself in
a dilemma from which there is no logical
way out, so long as she lives in a world
where Iamb chop, beefsteak, and roast
chicken are articles of ordinary diet; a
world in fact, where every meal is based
upon the death of some creature. For if
she places much emphasis upon the sa-
credness of life, the children soon begin to
question whether it be right to slay the
lamb or the chicken for their own food.
It would seem that there is nothing for
the consistent nature-study teacher to do
paper around her kitchen to rid her house
of flies, and then in mental anguish picked
off the buzzing, struggling victims and
sought to clean their too adhesive wings
and legs.
In fact, drawing the line between what
to kill and what to let live requires the
use of common sense rather than logic.
First of all, the nature-study teacher, while
exemplifying and encouraging the hu-
mane attitude toward the lower creatures,
and repressing cruelty which wantonly
causes suffering, should never magnify
the terrors of death. Death is as natural
as life and is the inevitable end of physical
life on our globe. Therefore, every story
and every sentiment expressed which
makes the child feel that death is terrible
is wholly wrong. The one right way to
teach about death is not to emphasize it
one way or another, but to deal with it
as a circumstance common to all; it should
be no more emphasized than the fact that
creatures eat or fall asleep.
Another thing for the nature-study
teacher to do is to direct the interest of
the child so that it shall center upon the
hungry creature rather than upon the one
which is made into the meal. It is well
to emphasize that one of the conditions
imposed upon every living being in the
woods and fields is that if it is clever
enough to get a meal it is entitled to one
when it is hungry. The child naturally
takes this view of it. I remember well
that as a child I never thought particu-
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
larly about the mouse which my cat
was eating; in fact, the process of trans-
muting mouse into cat seemed altogether
proper, but when the cat played with the
mouse, that was quite another thing, and
was never permitted. Although no one ap-
preciates more deeply than I the debt
which we owe to Thompson Seton and
writers of his kind, who have placed be-
fore the public the animal story from the
animal point of view and thus set us all
to thinking, yet it is certainly wrong to
impress this view too strongly upon the
young and sensitive child. In fact, this
process should not begin until the judg-
ment and the understanding are well de-
veloped, for we all know that although
seeing the other fellow's standpoint is a
source of strength and breadth of mind,
yet living the other fellow7s life is, at
best, an enfeebling process and a futile
waste of energy.
SHOULD THE NATURE-STUDY TEACHER
TEACH How TO DESTROY LIFE?
It is probably within the proper scope
of the nature-study teacher to place em-
phasis upon the domain of man, who, be-
ing the most powerful of all animals, as-
serts his will as to which ones shall live in
his midst. From a standpoint of abstract
justice, the stray cat has just as much
right to kill and eat the robin which
builds in the vine of my porch as the
robin has to pull and eat the earth-
worms from my lawn; but the place is
mine, and I choose to kill the cat and pre-
serve the robin.
When emphasizing the domain of
man, we may have to deal with the kill-
ing of creatures which are injurious to
his interests. Nature-study may be tribu-
tary to this, in a measure and indirectly,
but the study of this question is surely
not nature-study. For example, the child
studies the cabbage butterfly in all its
stages, the exquisitely sculptured yellow
egg, the velvety green caterpillar, the
chrysalis with its protecting colors, the
white-winged butterfly, and becomes in-
terested in the life of the insect. Not
under any consideration, when the atten-
tion of the child is focused on the insect,
should we suggest a remedy for it when
it becomes a pest. Let the life story of the
butterfly stand as a fascinating page of
nature's book. But later, when the child
enters on his career as a gardener, when
he sets out his row of cabbage plants and
waters and cultivates them, and does his
best to bring them to maturity, along
conies the butterfly, now an arch enemy,
and begins to rear her progeny on the
product of his toil. Now the child's in-
terest is focused on the cabbage, and the
question is not one of killing insects so
much as of saving plants. In fact there is
nothing in spraying the plants with Paris
green which suggests cruelty to innocent
caterpillars, nor is the process likely to
harden the child's sensibilities.
To gain knowledge of the life stow of
insects or other creatures is nature-study.
To destroy them as pests is a part of agri-
culture or horticulture. The one may be
of fundamental assistance to the other,
but the two are quite separate and should
never be confused.
THE FIELD NOTEBOOK
A field notebook may be made a joy
to the pupil and a help to the teacher.
Any kind of blank book will do for this,
except that it should not be too large to
be carried in the pocket, and it should
always have the pencil attached. To make
the notebook a success the following rules
should be observed:
(a) The book should be considered
the personal property of the child and
should never be criticized by the teacher
except as a matter of encouragement; for
the spirit in which the notes are made is
more important than the information
they cover.
(b) The making of drawings to illus-
trate what is observed should be encour-
aged. A graphic drawing is far better than
a long description of a natural object.
(c) The notebook should not be re-
garded as a part of the work in English.
The spelling, language, and writing of the
notes should all be exempt from criticism.
(d) As occasion offers, outlines for ob-
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
. a.73.
297
t f
•J a r* u
t t
TWk-s.
3-
To
L
A page from the field notebook of a boy of fourteen who read Thoreau and admired the books
of Ernest Thompson Seton
serving certain plants or animals may be
placed in the notebook previous to the
field excursion so as to give definite points
for the work.
(e) No child should be compelled to
have a notebook.
The field notebook is a veritable gold
mine for the nature-study teacher to work.
in securing voluntary and happy observa-
tions from the pupils concerning their
out-of-door interests. It is a friendly gate
which admits the teacher to a knowledge
of what the child sees and cares for.
Through it she may discover where the
child's attention impinges upon the
realm of nature and thus may know
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
A brook in winter
where to find the starting point for cul-
tivating larger intelligence and wider in-
terest.
I have examined many field notebooks
kept by pupils in the intermediate grades
and have been surprised at their pleni-
tude of accurate observation and graphic
illustration. These books ranged from
blank account books furnished by the
family grocer up to a quarto, the pages of
which were adorned with many marginal
illustrations made in passionate admira-
tion of Thompson Seton's books and
filled with carefully transcribed text that
showed the direct influence of Thoreau.
These books, of whatever quality, are pre-
cious beyond price to their owners. And
why not? For they represent what cannot
be bought or sold, personal experience in
the happy world of out-of-doors.
THE FIELD EXCURSION
Many teachers look upon the field ex-
cursion as a precarious voyage, steered be-
tween the Scylla of hilarious seeing too
much and the Charybdis of seeing noth-
ing at all because of the zest which comes
from freedom in the fields and wood.
This danger can be obviated if the teacher
plans the work definitely before starting,
and demands certain results.
It is a mistake to think that a half day
is necessary for a field lesson, since a very
efficient field trip may be made during the
ten or fifteen minutes at recess, If it is~well
planned. Certain questions and lines of
investigation should be given the pupils
before starting and given in such a man-
ner as to make them thoroughly inter-
ested in discovering the facts ^ A "certain
teacher in New York State lias studied all
the common plants and trees in the vi-
cinity- of her school by means of these re-
cess excursions and the pupils have been
enthusiastic about the work.
The half-hour excursion should be pre-
ceded by a talk concerning the purposes
of the outing and the pupils must know
that certain observations are to be made
or they will not be permitted to go again.
This should not be emphasized as a pun-
ishment; but they should be made to un-
derstand that a field excursion is only,
naturally enough, for those who wish to
see and understand outdoor life. For all
field work, the teacher should make use
of the field notebook which should be
a part of the pupils" equipment.
PETS AS NATURE-STUDY SUBJECTS
Little attention has been given to mak-
ing the child understand what would be
the lives of his pets if they were in their
native environment, or to relating their
habits and lives as wild animals. Almost
any pet, if properly observed, affords an
admirable opportunity for understanding
the reasons why its structure and peculiar
habits may have made it successful among
other creatures and in other lands.
Moreover., the actions and the daily
W. J. Hamilton, Jr.
Young woodchucks
i6
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
life of the pet make interesting subject
matter for a notebook. The lessons on
the dog, rabbit and horse as given in this
volume may suggest methods for such
stud}', and with apologies that it is not
better and more interesting, I have placed
with the story of the squirrel a few pages
from one of my own notebooks regard-
ing my experiences with " Furry." I in-
clude this record as a suggestion for the
children that they should keep notebooks
of their pets. It will lead them to closer
observation and to a better and more nat-
ural expression of their experiences.
THE CORRELATION OF NATURE-STUDY
WITH LANGUAGE WORK
Nature-study should be so much a part
of the child's thought and interest that it
will naturally form a thought core for
other subjects quite unconsciously on his
part. In fact, there is one safe rule for cor-
relation in this case — it is legitimate and
excellent training as long as the pupil does
not discover that he is correlating. But
there is something in human nature which
revolts against doing one thing to accom-
plish quite another. A boy once said to
me, " I'd rather never go on a field ex-
cursion than to have to write it up for
English/' a sentiment I sympathized with
keenly; ulterior motive is sickening to the
honest spirit. But if that same boy had
been a member of a field class and had en-
joyed all the new experiences and had
witnessed the interesting things discov-
ered on this excursion, and if later his
teacher had asked him to write for her
an account of some part of it, because
she wished to know what he had discov-
ered, the chances are that he would have
written his story joyfully and with a
certain pride that would have counted
much for achievement in word expres-
sion.
When Mr. John Spencer, known to so
many children in New York State as
" Uncle John," was conducting the Junior
Naturalist Clubs, the teachers allowed
letters to him to count for language ex-
ercises; and the eagerness with which
these letters were written should have
given the teachers the key to the proper
method of teaching English. Mr. Spencer
requested the teachers not to correct the
letters, because he wished the children
to be thinking about the subject matter
rather than the form of expression. But
so anxious were many of the pupils to
make their letters perfect that they ear-
nestly requested their teachers to help
them write correctly, which was an ideal
condition for teaching them English.
Writing letters to Uncle John was such
a joy to the pupils that it was used as a
privilege and a reward of merit in many
schools. One rural teacher reduced the
percentage of tardiness to a minimum by
giving the first period in the morning to
the work in English which consisted of
letters to Uncle John.
Why do pupils dislike writing English
exercises? Simply because they are not
interested in the subject they are asked
to write about, and they know that the
teacher is not interested in the informa-
tion contained in the essay. But when
they are interested in the subject and
write about it to a person who is inter-
ested, the conditions are entirely changed.
If the teacher, overwhelmed as she is by
work and perplexities, could only keep in
mind that the purpose of a language is,
after all, merely to convey ideas, some of
her perplexities would fade away. A con-
veyance naturally should be fitted for the
load it is to carry, and if the pupil ac-
quires the load first he is very likely to
construct a conveyance that will be ade-
quate. How often the conveyance is made
perfect through much effort and polished
through agony of spirit and the load en-
tirely forgotten!
Nature-study lessons give much excel-
lent subject matter for stories and essays,
but these essays should never be criticized
or defaced with the blue pencil. They
should be read with interest by the
teacher; the mistakes made in them, so
transformed as to be unrecognizable, may
be used for drill exercises in grammatical
construction. After all, grammar and spell-
ing are only gained by practice and there
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
is no royal road leading to their acquire-
ment.
THE CORRELATION OF NATURE-STUDY
AND DRAWING
The correlation of nature-study and
drawing is so natural and inevitable that
it needs never be revealed to the pupil.
When the child is interested in studying
any object, he enjoys illustrating his ob-
servations with drawings; the happy ab-
r " ~~'
A mounted fern. A pressed dry fern placed
on a layer of cotton batting backed by card-
board is covered with a sheet of cellophane
and is slipped into an envelope from which a
panel has been cut
sorption of children thus engaged is a
delight to witness. At its best, drawing is
a perfectly natural method of self-expres-
sion. The savage and the young child,
both untutored, seek to express them-
selves and their experiences by this means.
It is only when the object to be drawn
is foreign to the interest of the child that
drawing is a task.
Nature-study offers the best means for
bridging the gap that lies between the
kindergarten child who makes drawings
because he loves to and is impelled to
from within, and the pupil in the grades
who is obliged to draw what the teacher
places before him. From making crude
and often meaningless pencil strokes,
which is the entertainment of the voting
child, to the outlining of a leaf or some
other simple and interesting natural ob-
ject is a normal step full of interest for
the child because it is still self-expression.
Miss Man" E. Hill, formerly of the
Goodyear School of Syracuse, s;ave each
year an exhibition of the drawings made
by the children in the nature-study classes;
and these were universally so excellent
that most people regarded them as an
exhibition from the art department; and
yet many of these pupils never had had
lessons in drawing. They had learned to
draw because they liked to make pictures
of the living objects which they had
studied. One year there were in this ex-
hibit many pictures of toads in various
stages, and although their anatomy was
sometimes awry in the pictures, yet there
was a certain vivid expression of life in
their representation; one felt that the
toads could jump. Miss Hill allowed the
pupils to choose their own medium, pen-
cil, crayon, or water color, and said that
they seemed to feel which was best. For
instance, when drawing the outline of
trees in winter they chose pencil, but when
representing the trill iuni or iris they pre-
ferred the water color, while for bitter-
sweet and crocuses they chose the colored
crayons.
It is through this method of drawing
that which interests him that the child
retains and keeps as his own what should
be an inalienable right, a graphic method
of expressing his own impressions. Too
much have we emphasized drawing as art
art; it may be an art, if the one who draws
is an artist; but if he is not an artist, he
still has a right to draw if it pleases him
to do so. We might as well declare that
a child should not speak unless he put
his words into poetry, as to declare that
he should not draw because his drawings
are not artistic.
i8
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
THE CORRELATION OF NATURE-STUDY
WITH GEOGRAPHY
Life depends upon its environment.
Geographical conditions and limitations
have shaped the mold into which plastic
life has been poured and by which its
form has been modified. It may be easy
for the untrained mind to see how the
deserts and oceans affect life. Cattle may
not roam in the former because there is
U. S. Geological Survey — Photo by W. G. Pierce
A meandering stream
nothing there for them to eat, nor may
they occupy the latter because they are
not fitted for breathing air in the water.
And yet the camel can endure thirst and
live on the scant food of the desert; and
the whale is a mammal fitted to live in
the sea. The question is, how are we to
impress the child with the " have to "
which lies behind all these geographical
facts? If animals live in the desert they
have to subsist on scant and peculiar food
which grows there; they have to get along
with little water; they have to endure heat
and sand storms; they have to have eyes
that will not become blinded by the vivid
reflection of the sunlight on the sand; they
have to be of sand color so that they may
escape the eyes of their enemies or creep
upon their prey unperceived.
All these " have to's " are not mere
chance, but they have existed so long that
the animal, by constantly coming in con-
tact with them, has attained its present
form and habits.
There are just as many " have to's " in
the stream or the pond back of the school-
house, on the dry hillside behind it, or
in the woods beyond the creek as there
are in desert or ocean; and when the child
gets an inkling of this fact, he has made
a great step into the realm of geography.
When he realizes why water lilies can
grow only in still water that is not too
deep and which has a silt bottom, and
why the cattails grow in swamps where
there is not too much water, and why the
mullein grows in the dry pasture, and
why the hepatica thrives in the rich,
damp woods, and why the daisies grow
in the meadows, he will understand that
this partnership of nature and geography
illustrates the laws which govern life.
Many phases of physical geography be-
long to the realm of nature-study: the
brook, its course, its work of erosion and
sedimentation; the rocks of many kinds,
the soil, the climate, the weather, are all
legitimate subjects for nature-study les-
sons.
THE CORRELATION OF NATURE-STUDY
WITH HISTORY
There are many points where nature-
study impinges upon history in a way
that may prove the basis for an inspiring
lesson. Many of our weeds, cultivated
plants, and domestic animals have been
introduced from Europe and are a part of
our colonial history; while many of the
most commonly seen creatures have played
their part in the history of ancient times.
For instance, the bees which gave to man
the only means available to him for sweet-
ening his food until the iyth century, were
closely allied to the home life of ancient
peoples. The buffalo which ranged our
western plains had much to do with the
life of the red man. The study of the grass-
hopper brings to the child's attention
stories of the locusts' invasion mentioned
in the Bible, and the stars which witnessed
our creation and of which Job sang and
the ancients wrote, shine over our heads
every night.
But the trees, through the lengthy span
of their lives, cover more history individu-
ally than do other organisms. In glancing
across the wood-covered hills of New
York one often sees there, far above the
other trees, the gaunt crowns of old white
pines. Such trees belonged to the forest
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
primeval and may have attained the age
of two centuries; they stand there look-
ing out over the world, relics of another
age when America belonged to the red
man, and the bear and the panther played
or fought beneath them. The cedars live
The Arnold Arboretum
The Endicott pear tree. This tree was
planted by Governor John Endicott in his
garden in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1630.
George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, and
Daniel Webster enjoyed the fruit of this
patriarchal tree. Sprouts, shown above, from
the old tree still bear
longer than do the pines, and the great
scarlet oak may have attained the age of
four centuries before it yields to fate.
Perhaps in no other way can the atten-
tion of the pupil be turned so naturally
to past events as through the thought
that the life of such a tree has spanned
so much of human history. The life his-
tory of one of these ancient trees should
be made the center of local history; let
the pupils find when the town was first
settled by the whites and where they came
from, and how large the tree was then;
what Indian tribes roamed the woods be-
fore that and what animals were common
in the forest when this tree was a sapling.
Thus may be brought out the chief events
in the history of the county and town-
ship, when they were established and for
whom or what they were named; and a
comparison of the present industries may
be made with those of a hundred years
ago.
THE CORRELATION OF NATURE-STUDY
WITH ARITHMETIC
The arithmetical problems presented
by nature-study are many; some of them
are simple and some of them are com-
plicated, and all of them are illuminating.
Seed distribution especially lends itself to
computation; a milkweed pod contains
140 seeds; there are five such pods on
one plant; each milkweed plant requires
at least one square foot of ground to grow
on; how much ground would be required
to grow all of the seeds from this one
plant? Or, count the seeds in one dande-
lion head, multiply by the number of
flower heads on the plant and estimate
how many plants can grow on a square
foot, then ask a boy how long it would
take for one dandelion plant to cover his
™i
W. C. Muenscher
A red cedar and its seedlings
father's farm with its progeny; or count
the blossoms on one branch of an apple
tree, later count the ripened fruit; what
percentage of blossoms matured into fruit?
Measuring trees, their height and thick-
ness and computing the lumber they will
make combines arithmetic and geometry,
and so on ad infinitum.
2o THE TEACHING OF
As a matter of fact, the teacher will
find in almost every nature lesson an
arithmetic lesson; and when arithmetic
is used in this work, it should be vital and
inherent and not " tacked on "; the pu-
pils should be really interested in the an-
swers to their problems; and as with all
correlation, the success of it depends upon
the genius of the teacher.
GARDENING AND NATURE-STUDY
Erroneously, some people maintain
that gardening is nature-study; this is not
so necessarily nor ordinarily. Gardening
may be a basis for nature-study, but it is
rarely made so to any great extent. Even
the work in children's gardens is so con-
ducted that the pupils know little or
nothing of the flowers or vegetables which
they grow except their names, their uses
to man, and how to cultivate them. They
are taught how to prepare the soil, but
the reason for this from the plant's stand-
point is never revealed; and if the child
becomes acquainted with the plants in
his garden, he makes the discovery by
himself. All this is nothing against gar-
dening! It is a wholesome and valuable
experience for a child to learn how to
make a garden even if he remains ignorant
of the interesting facts concerning the
plants which he there cultivates. But if
the teachers are so inclined, they may
find in the garden and its products the
most interesting material for the best of
nature lessons. Every plant the child
grows is an individual with its own pe-
culiarities as well as those of its species
in manner of growth. Its roots, stems, and
leaves are of certain form and structure;
and often the special uses to the plant of
its own kind of leaves, stems, and roots
are obvious. Each plant has its own form
of flower and even its own tricks for se-
curing pollination; and its own manner of
developing and scattering its seeds. Every
weed of the garden has developed some
special method of winning and holding
its place among the cultivated plants; and
in no other way can the child so fully
and naturally come into a comprehension
of that term " the survival of the fittest "
NATURE-STUDY
as by studying the ways of the fit as exem-
plified in the triumphant weeds of his
garden.
Every earthworm working below the
soil is doing something for the garden.
Every bee that visits the flowers there is
on an errand for the garden as well as for
herself. Every insect feeding on leaf or
root is doing something to the garden.
Every bird that nests near by or that ever
visits it, is doing something which affects
the life and the growth of the garden.
What all of these uninvited guests are
doing is one field of garden nature-study.
Aside from all this study of individual
life in the garden, which even the young-
est child may take part in, there are the
more advanced lessons on the soil. What
kind of soil is it? From what sort of rock
was it formed? What renders it mellow
and fit for the growing of plants? More-
over, what do the plants get from it? How
do they get it? What do they do with
what they get?
This leads to the subject of plant physi-
ology, the elements of which may be
taught simply by experiments carried on
by the children themselves, experiments
which should demonstrate the sap cur-
rents in the plant; the use of water to
carry food and to make the plant rigid;
the use of sunshine in making the plant
food in the leaf laboratories; the nourish-
ment provided for the seed and its germi-
nation, and many other similar lessons.
A child who makes a garden, and thus
becomes intimate with the plants he cul-
tivates, and comes to understand the in-
terrelation of the various forms of life
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
21
which he finds in his garden, has pro-
gressed far in the fundamental knowledge
of nature's ways as well as in a practical
knowledge of agriculture.
NATURE-STUDY AND AGRICULTURE
Luckily, thumb-rule agriculture is be-
ing pushed to the wall in these enlight-
ened days. Thumb rules would work
much better if nature did not vary her
performances in such a confusing way.
Government experiment stations were es-
tablished because thumb rules for farm-
ing were unreliable and disappointing;
and all the work of all the experiment
stations has been simply advanced nature-
study and its application to the practice
of agriculture. Both nature-study and ag-
riculture are based upon the study of life
and the physical conditions which en-
courage or limit life; this is known to the
world as the study of the natural sciences;
and if we see clearly the relation of nature-
study to science, we may understand
better the relation of nature-study to ag-
riculture, which is based upon the sciences.
Nature-study is science brought home.
It is a knowledge of botany, zoology, and
geology as illustrated in the dooryard, the
cornfield or the woods back of the house.
Some people have an idea that to know
these sciences one must go to college;
they do not understand that nature has
furnished the material and laboratories
on every farm in the land. Thus, by be-
ginning with the child in nature-study we
take him to the laboratory of the wood
or garden, the roadside or the field, and
his materials are the wild flowers or the
Marion E. Wesp
A wheat shock
Dept. of Agronomy, N. Y. State College of Agriculture
A meadow at harvest time
weeds, or the insects that visit the golden-
rod or the bird that sings in the maple
tree, or the woodchuck whistling in the
pasture. The child begins to study living
things anywhere or everywhere, and his
progress is always along the various tracks
laid down by the laws of life, along which
his work as an agriculturist must always
progress if it is to be successful.
The child through nature-study learns
the way a plant grows, whether it be an
oak, a turnip, or a pigweed; he learns how
the roots of each are adapted to its needs;
how the leaves place themselves to get
the sunshine and why they need it; and
how the flowers get their pollen carried
by the bee or the wind; and how the
seeds are finally scattered and planted.
Or he learns about the life of the bird,
whether it be a chicken, an owl, or a
bobolink; he knows how each bird gets
its food and what its food is, where it
lives, where it nests, and its relation to
other living things. He studies the bum-
blebee and discovers its great mission of
pollen-carrying for many flowers, and in
the end would no sooner strike it dead
than he would voluntarily destroy his
clover patch. This is the kind of learn-
ing we call nature-study and not science
or agriculture. But the country child can
never learn anything in nature-study that
has not something to do with science, and
that has not its own practical lesson for
him, when he shall become a farmer.
Some have argued, " Why not make
nature-study solely along the lines of agri-
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
22
culture? Why should not the child begin
nature-study with the cabbage rather than
with the wild flowers?'' This argument
carried out logically provides recreation
for a boy in hoeing corn rather than in
playing ball. Many parents in the past
have argued thus and have, in conse-
quence, driven thousands of splendid
boys from the country to the city with a
loathing in their souls for the drudgery
which seemed all there was to farm life.
The reason the wild flowers may be se-
lected for beginning the nature-study of
plants is that every child loves these wood-
land posies, and his happiest hours are
spent in gathering them. Never yet have
we known of a case where a child, having
gained his knowledge of the way a plant
lives through studying the plants he loves,
has failed to be interested and delighted
to find that the wonderful things he dis-
covered about his wild flower may be true
of the vegetable in the garden, or the
purslane which fights with it for ground
to stand upon.
Some have said, " We, as farmers, care
only to know what concerns our pocket-
books; we wish only to study those things
which we must, as farmers, cultivate or
destroy. We do not care for the butterfly,
but we wish to know the plum weevil; we
do not care for the trillium, but we are
interested in the onion; we do not care
for the meadowlark, but we cherish the
gosling." This is an absurd argument
since it is a mental impossibility for any
human being to discriminate between
two things when he knows or sees only
one. In order to understand the impor-
tant economic relations to the world of
one plant or animal, it is absolutely nec-
essary to have a wide knowledge of other
plants and animals. One might as well
say, " I will see the approaching cyclone,
but never look at the sky; I will look at the
clover, but not see the dandelion; I will
look for the sheriff when he comes over
the hill, but will not see any other team
on the road."
Nature-study is an effort to make the
individual use his senses instead of losing
them; to train him to keep his eyes open
to all things so that his powers of dis-
crimination shall be based on wisdom.
The ideal farmer is not the man who by
hazard and chance succeeds; he is the
man who loves his farm and all that sur-
rounds it because he is awake to the
beauty as well as to the wonders which
are there; he is the man who understands
as far as may be the great forces of nature
which are at work around him, and there-
fore he is able to make them work for
him. For what is agriculture save a diver-
sion of natural forces for the benefit of
man! The farmer who knows these forces
only when restricted to his paltry crops,
and has no idea of their larger application,
is no more efficient as a farmer than a man
who knew only how to start and stop an
engine would be as an engineer.
In order to appreciate truly his farm,
the farmer must needs begin as a child
with nature-study; in order to be success-
ful and make the farm pay, he must needs
continue in nature-study; and to make his
declining years happy, content, full of
wide sympathies and profitable thought,
he must needs conclude with nature-
study; for nature-study is the alphabet of
agriculture and no word in that great vo-
cation may be spelled without it.
NATURE-STUDY CLUBS
The organizing by the pupils of a club
for studying out-of-door life is a great help
and inspiration to the work in nature-study
in the classroom. The essays and the talks
before the club prove efficient aid in Eng-
lish composition; and the varied interests
of the members of the club furnish new
and vital material for study. A button or a
badge may be designed for the club and,
of course, it must have a constitution and
bylaws. The proceedings of the club meet-
ings should be conducted according to
parliamentary rules; but the field excur-
sions should be entirely informal.
The meetings of the Junior Naturalists
Clubs, as organized in the schools of New
York State by Mr. John W. Spencer,
were most impressive. The school session
would be brought to a close, the teacher
stepping down and taking a seat with the
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
pupils. The president of the club, some
bashful boy or slender slip of a girl,
would take the chair and conduct the
meeting with a dignity and efficiency
worthy of a statesman. The order was per-
fect, the discussion much to the point.
I confess to a feeling of awe when I at-
tended these meetings, conducted so seri-
ously and so formally, by such youngsters.
Undoubtedly, the parliamentary training
and experience in speaking impromptu are
among the chief benefits of such a club.
These clubs may be organized for spe-
cial study. In one bird club of which I
know there have been contests. Sides
were chosen and the number of birds seen
from May i to 31 inclusive was the
test of supremacy. Notes on the birds
were taken in the field with such care
that, when at the end of the month each
member handed in his notes, they could
be used as evidence of accurate identifica-
tion. An umpire decided the doubtful
points with the help of bird manuals. The
contest was always close and exciting.
The programs of the nature club should
be varied so as to be continually interest-
ing. Poems and stories concerning the
objects studied help make the program
attractive. Observing nature, however,
should be the central theme of all
meetings.
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
First and indispensably, the teacher
should have at hand the subject of the
lesson. She should make herself familiar
with the points covered by the questions
and read the story before giving the les-
son. If she does not have the time to go
over the observations suggested before
giving the lesson, she should take up the
questions with the pupils as a joint inves-
tigation, and be boon companion in dis-
covering the story.
The story should not be read to the
pupils. It is given as an assistance to the
teacher, and is not meant for direct in-
formation to the pupils. If the teacher
knows a fact in nature's realm, she is then
in a position to lead her pupils to dis-
cover this fact for themselves.
Make the lesson an investigation and
make the pupils feel that they are in-
vestigators. To tell the story to begin
with inevitably spoils this attitude and
quenches interest.
The "leading thought" embodies
some of the points which should be in
the teacher's mind while giving the les-
son; it should not be read or declared to
the pupils.
The outlines for observations herein
given by no means cover all of the ob-
servations possible; they are meant to sug-
gest to the teacher observations of her
own, rather than to be followed slavishly.
The suggestions for observations have
been given in the form of questions,
merely for the sake of saving space. The
direct questioning method, if not em-
ployed with discretion, becomes tiresome
Marion E. Wesp
to both pupil and teacher. If the ques-
tions do not inspire the child to investi-
gate, they are useless. To grind out an-
swers to questions about any natural
object is not nature-study, it is simply
" grind," a form of mental activity which
is of much greater use when applied to
spelling or the multiplication table than
to the study of nature. The best teacher
will cover the points suggested for ob-
servations with few direct questions. To
those who find the questions inadequate I
THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY
will say that, although I have used these
outlines once, I am sure I should never be
able to use them again without making
changes.
A hickory tree
Marion E. Wesp
The topics chosen for these lessons may
not be the most practical or the most
interesting or the most enlightening
that are to be found; they are simply
those subjects which I have used in my
classes, because we happened to find them
at hand the mornings the lessons were
given.
While an earnest attempt has been
made to make the information in this
book accurate, it is to be expected and to
be hoped that many discrepancies will
be found by those who follow the lessons.
No two animals or plants are just alike,
and no two people see things exactly the
same way. The chief aim of this volume
is to encourage investigation rather than
to give information. Therefore, if mis-
takes are found, the object of the book
will have been accomplished, and the
author will feel deeply gratified. If the
teacher finds that the observations made
by her and her pupils do not agree with
the statements in the book, I earnestly
enjoin upon her to trust to her own eyes
rather than to any book.
No teacher is expected to teach all the
lessons in this book. A wide rarige of
subjects is given, so that congenial choice
may be made.
PART II
ANIMALS
ANIMAL GROUPS
For some inexplicable reason, the word
animal? in common parlance, is restricted
to the mammals. As a matter of fact, the
bird, the fish, the insect, and the snake
have as much right to be called animals as
the squirrel or the deer. And while I be-
lieve that much freedom in the matter of
scientific nomenclature is permissible in
nature-study, I also believe that it is well
for the child to have a clearly defined idea
of the classes into which the animal king-
dom is divided; I would have him gain
this knowledge by noting how one animal
differs from another rather than by study-
ing the classification of animals in books.
He sees that the fish differs in many ways
from the bird and that the toad differs
from the snake; and it will be easy for
him to grasp the fact that the mammals
differ from all other animals in that their
young are nourished by milk from the
breasts of the mother; when he appreci-
ates this, he will understand that such
diverse forms as the whale, the cow, the
bat, and man are members of one great
class of animals.
BIRDS
Young phoebes that have just left the nest
The reason for studying any bird is to
ascertain what it does; in order to accom-
plish this, it is necessary to know what
the bird is, learning what it is being
simply a step that leads to a knowledge
of what it does. But, to hear some of our
bird devotees talk, one would think that
to be able to identify a bird is all of bird
study. On the contrary, the identification
of birds is simply the alphabet to the real
study, the alphabet by means of which
we may spell out the life habits of the
bird. To know these habits is the ambition
of the true ornithologist, and should like-
wise be the ambition of the beginner,
even though the beginner be a young
child.
Several of the most common birds have
been selected as subjects for lessons in
this book; other common birds, like the
phosbe and the wrens, have been purposely
omitted; after the children have studied
the birds, as indicated in the lessons, they
will enjoy working out lessons for them-
selves with other birds. Naturally, the se-
quence of these lessons does not follow
scientific classification; in the first lessons,
an attempt has been made to lead the
child gradually into a knowledge of bird
life. Beginning with the chicken there fol-
low naturally the lessons with pigeons and
the canary; then there follow the careful
and detailed study of the robins and con^
stant comparison of them with the blue-
birds. This is enough for the first year
in the primary grades. The next year the
work begins with the birds that remain
the North during the winter, the
m
Leonard K. Beyer
A family of cedar waxwings
28
chickadee, nuthatch, and downy wood-
pecker. After these have been studied care-
fully, the teacher may be an opportunist
when spring comes and select any of the
lessons when the bird subjects are at hand.
The classification suggested for the wood-
peckers and the swallows is for more ad-
vanced pupils, as are the lessons on the
geese and turkeys. It is to be hoped that
these lessons will lead the child directly to
the use of the bird books, of which there
are many excellent ones; for these, see the
bibliography.
BEGINNING BIRD STUDY IN THE
PRIMARY GRADES
The hen is especially adapted as an ob-
ject lesson for the young beginner of bird
study. First of all, she is a bird, notwith-
standing the adverse opinions of two of
my small pupils who stoutly maintained
that " a robin is a bird, but a hen is a hen/7
Moreover, the hen is a bird always avail-
able for nature-study; she looks askance
at us from the crates of the world's
marts; she comes to meet us in the coun-
try barnyard, stepping toward us sedately;
looking at us earnestly with one eye, then
Leonard K. Beyer
A redstart at her nest
turning her head so as to check up her
observations with the other; meantime
she asks us a little question in a whee-
dling, soft tone, which we understand per-
fectly to mean, " Have you perchance
ANIMALS
but she is a bird with problems; and by
studying her carefully we may be intro-
duced into the very heart and center of
bird life.
This lesson may be presented in two
ways : First, if the pupils live in the coun-
try, where they have poultry at home, the
whole series of lessons may best be accom-
plished through talks by the teacher, fol-
lowed on the part of the children by ob-
servations to be made at home. The re-
sults of these observations should be given
in school in oral or written lessons. Sec-
ond, if the pupils are not familiar with
fowls, a hen and a chick, if possible, should
be kept in a cage in the schoolroom for a
few days, and a duck or gosling should be
brought in one day for observation. The
crates in which fowls are sent to market
make very good cages. One of the teachers
of the Elmira, N. Y. schools introduced
into the basement of the schoolhouse a
hen, which there hatched her brood of
chicks, much to the children's delight and
edification. After the pupils have become
thoroughly interested in the hen and are
familiar with her ways, after they have feel
her and watched her, and have for her a
sense of ownership, the following lessons
may be given in an informal manner, as if
they were naturally suggested to the
teacher's mind through watching the fowl.
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Cards, by Allan Brooks, with text by
Alden H. Hadley; Audubon Bird Leaflets,
published by the National Association of
Audubon Societies; The Bird Book, by
Neltje Blanchan; Bird Guide: Land Birds
East of the Rodcies, by Chester A. Reed;
Bird Guide; Water Birds, Game Birds
and Birds of Prey East of the Rockies, by
Chester A. Reecl; Bird Life, by Frank M.
Chapman; Birds of America, edited by
T. Gilbert Pearson; Birds of Massachu-
setts and Other New England States, by
Edward H. Forbusli; Birds of Minnesota,
Bird Portraits in Color, A Manual for the
Identification of the Birds of Minnesota
and Neighboring States, 295 American
Birds (pictures in spiral binding or loose
brought me something to eat? " Not only in portfolio), all by Thomas S. Roberts;
is the hen an interesting bird in herself, Birds of New York, by E. H. Eaton; The
BIRDS
Book of Bird Life, by A. A. Allen; The
Book of Birds, edited by Gilbert Grosve-
nor and Alexander Wetmore; The Chil-
dren's Book of Birds ( First Book of Birds
and Second Book of Birds), by Olive
Thorne Miller; A Field Guide' to the
Birds, by Roger Tory Peterson; Handbook
of the Birds of Eastern North America,
by Frank M. Chapman; Ornithology
Laboratory Notebook, by A. A. Allen; Red
Book of Birds of America, Blue Book of
Birds of America, Green Book of Birds
29
of America, by Frank G. Ashbrook; What
Bird is That?" by Frank M. Chapman.
(These books contain descriptions and
accounts of all the wild birds considered
in this section of the Handbook. Addi-
tional references are to be found in the
bibliography in the back of the book, un-
der various headings: Birds, Animals in
General, Nature Study in General, Text-
books and Readers, Nature Poetry, Maga-
zines and Periodicals, Books for Parents
and Teachers.)
FEATHERS AS CLOTHING
The bird's clothing affords a natural
beginning for bird study because the wear-
ing of feathers is a most striking character-
istic distinguishing birds from other crea-
Hooks on barbels
A feather
tares; also, feathers and flying are the first
things the young child notices about birds.
The purpose of all these lessons on
the hen are: (a) To induce the child to
make continued and sympathetic observa-
tions on the habits of the domestic birds.
(b) To cause him involuntarily to com-
pare the domestic with the wild birds.
(c) To induce him to think for himself
how the shape of the body, wings, head,
beak, feet, legs, and feathers are adapted in
each species to protect the bird and assist
it in getting its living.
The overlapping of the feathers on a
hen's back and breast is a pretty illustra-
tion of nature's method of shingling, so
that the rain, finding no place to enter,
drips off, leaving the bird's underclothing
quite dry. It is interesting to note how a
hen behaves in the rain; she droops her
tail and holds herself so that the water
finds upon her no resting place, but simply
a steep surface down which to flow to the
ground.
Each feather consists of three parts, the
shaft or quill, which is the central stiff
Feathers help birds to endure the cold
stem of the feather, giving it strength.
From this quill come off the barbs which,
toward the outer end, join together in
a smooth web, making the thin, fanlike
portion of the feather; at the base is the
fluff, which is soft and downy and near
to the body of the fowl. The teacher
3°
should put on the blackboard this figure
so that incidentally the pupils may learn
the parts of a feather and their struc-
ture. If a microscope is available, show
both the web and the fluff of a feather
under a three-fourths objective.
The feathers on the back of a hen are
longer and narrower in proportion than
those on the breast and are especially fit-
ted to protect the back from rain; the
breast feathers are shorter and have more
of the fluff, thus protecting the breast
from the cold as well as the rain. It is plain
to any child that the soft fluff is com-
parable to our underclothing while the
smooth, overlapping web forms a rain-
and wind-proof outer coat. Down is a
feather with no quill; young chicks are
covered with down. A pin-feather is simply
a young feather rolled up in a sheath,
which bursts later and is shed, leaving the
feather free to assume its form. Take a
large pin-feather and cut the sheath open
and show the pupils the young feather
lying within.
When a hen oils her feathers it is a
process well worth observing. The oil
gland is on her back just at the base of
the tail feathers; she squeezes the gland
with her beak to get the oil and then
rubs the beak over the surface of her
ANIMALS
hen oils her feathers it is a sure sign of
rain. The hen sheds her feathers once a
year and is a most untidy looking bird
meanwhile, a fact that she seems to real-
ize, for she is as shy and cross as a young
lady caught in company with her hair in
curlers; but she seems very pleased with
Young pelicans are born naked, but are soon
covered with white down
feathers and passes them through it; she
spends more time oiling the feathers on
her back and breast than those on the
other parts, so that they will surely shed
water. Country people say that when the
J. E. Rice
Feathers of a rooster, showing their relative
size, shape, and position
1, neck hackle; 2, breast; 3, wing shoulder covert; 4,
wing flight covert ; 5, wing primary ; 6, wing .secondary ;
7, wing covert; 8, back; 9, tail covert; 10, main tail;
11, fluff; 12, thigh; 13, saddle hackle; 14, the sickle or
feather of beauty ; 15, lesser sickle
herself when she finally gains her new
feathers.
SUGGESTED READING — The Bird Boole,
by Fannie H. Eckstorm; Bird Friends, by
Gilbert H. Trafton; Bird Life, by Frank
M. Chapman; Birds and Their Attributes,
by Glover M. Allen; The Book of Bird
Life, by A. A. Allen; The Children's Book
of Birds (First Book of Birds and Second
Book of Birds), by Olive Thome Miller;
Nature — by Seaside and Wayside, by
Mary G. Phillips and Julia M. Wright,
Book 3, Plants and Animals.
LESSON i
FEATHERS AS CLOTHING
LEADING THOUGHT — Feathers grow
from the skin of a bird and protect the
bird from rain, snow, wind, and cold.
Some of the feathers act as cloaks or
BIRDS
mackintoshes and others as undercloth-
ing.
METHOD — The hen should be at close
range for this lesson where the children
may observe how and where the different
kinds of feathers grow. The pupils should
also study separately the form of a feather
from the back, from the breast, from the
under side of the body, and a pin-feather.
OBSERVATIONS FOR PUPILS — i. How
are the feathers arranged on the back of
the hen? Are they like shingles on the
roof?
2. How does a hen look when standing
in the rain?
3. How are the feathers arranged on
the breast?
4. Compare a feather from the back
and one from the breast and note the
difference.
5. Are both ends of these feathers alike?
If not, what is the difference?
6. Is the fluffy part of the feather on
31
the outside or next to the bird's skin?
What is its use?
7. Why is the smooth part of the
feather (the web) on the outside?
8. Some feathers are all fluff and are
called " down/' At what age was the fowl
all covered with down?
9. What is a pin-feather? Why do you
think it is so called?
10. How do hens keep their feathers
oily and glossy so they will shed water?
11. Where does the hen get the oil?
Describe how she oils her feathers; which
ones does she oil most? Does she oil her
feathers before a rain?
" How beautiful your feathers be/ "
The Redbird sang to the Tulip-tree
New garbed in autumn gold.
" Alas/ " the bending branches sighed,
" They cannot like your leaves abide
To keep us from the cold/ "
— JOHN B. TABB.
FEATHERS AS ORNAMENT
The ornamental plumage of birds is
one of the principal illustrations of a great
principle of evolution. The theory is that
the male birds win their mates because
of their beauty, those that are not beauti-
ful being doomed to live single and leave
no progeny to inherit their dullness. On
the other hand, the successful wooer
hands down his beauty to his sons. How-
ever, another quite different principle acts
upon the coloring of the plumage of the
mother birds; for if they should develop
bright colors themselves, they would at-
tract the eyes of the enemy to their pre-
cious hidden nests; only by being incon-
spicuous are they able to protect their
eggs and nestlings from discovery and
death. The mother partridge, for instance,
is so nearly the color of the dead leaves on
the ground about her that we may almost
step upon her before we discover her; if
she were the color of the male oriole or
tanager she would very soon be the center
of attraction to every prowler. Thus it has
come about that among the birds the male
has developed gorgeous colors which at-
tract the female, while the female has
kept modest, unnoticeable plumage.
Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.
Not a candidate for a beauty contest. A young
belted kingfisher clothed in pin feathers
The curved feathers of the rooster's
tail are weak and mobile and could not
possibly be of any use as a rudder; but
32
they give grace and beauty to the fowl
and cover the useful rudder feathers un-
derneath by a feather fountain of irides-
cence. The neck plumage of the cock
Peacock feathers. Is beauty use,
is also often luxurious and beautiful in
color and quite different from that of
the hen. Among the Rouen ducks the
brilliant blue-green iridescent head of the
drake and his wing bars are beautiful, and
make his wife seem Quaker-like in con-
trast.
As an object lesson to instill the idea
that the male bird is proud of his beautiful
feathers, I know of none better than that
presented by the turkey gobbler, for he
is a living expression of self-conscious van-
ity. He spreads his tail to the fullest extent
and shifts it this way and that to show the
exquisite play of colors over the feathers
in the sunlight, meanwhile throwing out
his chest to call particular attention to his
blue and red wattles; and to keep from
bursting with pride he bubbles over in
vainglorious " gobbles."
The hen with her chicks and the turkey
hen with her brood, if they follow their
own natures, must wandei in the fields for
food. If they were bright in color, the
hawks would soon detect them and their
chances of escape would be small; this is
an instance of the advantage to the young
of adopting the colors of the mother
rather than of the father; a fact equally
true of the song birds in cases where the
males are brilliant in color at maturity.
The male Baltimore oriole does not assist
his mate in brooding, but he sits some-
where on the home tree and cheers her by
his glorious song and by glimpses of his
gleaming orange coat. Some have accused
him of being lazy; on the contrary, he is
ANIMALS
a wise householder, for, instead of attract-
ing the attention of crow or squirrel to his
nest, he distracts their attention from it
by both color and song.
A peacock's feather should really be a
lesson by itself, it is so much a thing of
beauty. The brilliant color of the purple
eye-spot, and the graceful flowing barbs
that form the setting to the central gem,
are all a training in aesthetics as well as
in nature-study. After the children have
studied such a feather let them see the
peacock, either in reality or in picture, and
give them stories about this bird of Juno
— a bird so inconspicuous, except for his
great spread of tail, that a child seeing
him for the first time cried, " Oh, oh, see
this old hen all in bloom! "
The whole question of sexual selection
may be made as plain as need be for the
little folks, by simply telling them that
the mother bird chooses for her mate the
one which is most brightly and beautifully
dressed; make much of the comb and wat-
tles of the rooster and gobbler as additions
to the brilliancy of their appearance.
SUGGESTED READING — See suggested
reading for " Feathers as Clothing."
LESSON 2
FEATHERS AS ORNAMENT
LEADING THOUGHT — The color of
feathers and often their shape make some
birds more beautiful; while in others, the
color of the feathers serves to protect
them from the observation of their ene-
mies.
METHOD — While parts of this lesson
relating to fowls may be given in primary
grades, it is equally fitted for pupils who
have a wider knowledge of birds. Begin
with a comparison of the plumage of the
hen and the rooster. Then, if possible,
study the turkey gobbler and a peacock in
life or in pictures. Also the plumage of a
Rouen duck and drake, and if possible,
the Baltimore oriole, the goldfinch, the
scarlet tanager, and the cardinal.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Note the difference
in shape and color of the tail feathers of
hen and rooster.
BIRDS
2. Do the graceful curved tail feathers
of the rooster help him in flying? Are they
stiff enough to act as a rudder?
3. If not of use in flying what are they
for? Which do you think the more beauti-
ful the hen or the rooster?
4. In what respects is the rooster a more
beautiful fowl?
5. What other parts of the rooster's
plumage are more beautiful than that of
the hen?
6. If a turkey gobbler sees you looking
at him he begins to strut. Do you think
he does this to show off his tail feathers?
Note how he turns his spread tail this way
and that so the sunshine will bring out
the beautiful changeable colors. Do you
think he does this so you can see and ad-
mire him?
7. Describe the difference in plumage
between the hen turkey and the gobbler.
Does the hen turkey strut?
8. Note the beautiful blue-green irides-
cent head and wing patches on the wings
of the Rouen ducks. Is the drake more
beautiful than the duck?
9. What advantage is it for these fowls
to have the father bird more beautiful and
bright in color than the mother bird?
10. In the case of the Baltimore oriole,
is the mother bird as bright in color as the
father bird?
11. Study a peacock's feather. What
Peacocks
color is the eye-spot? What color around
that? What 'color around that? What
color and shape are the outside barbs of
the feather? Do you blame a peacock for
being proud when he can spread a tail of
a hundred eyes? Does the peahen have
such beautiful tail feathers as the peacock?
The bird of Juno glories in his plumes;
Pride makes the fowl to preene his feath-
ers so.
His spotted train fetched from old Argus'
head,
With golden rays like to the brightest sun,
Inserteth self-love in the silly bird;
Till midst its hot and glorious fumes
He spies his feet and then lets fall his
plumes.
— " THE PEACOCK/'
ROBERT GREENE (1560)
HOW BIRDS FLY
To convince the children that a bird's
wings correspond to our arms, they should
see a fowl with its feathers off, prepared
for market or oven, and they will infer
the fact at once.
The bird flies by lifting itself through
pressing down upon the air with its wings.
There are several experiments which are
needed to make the child understand this.
It is difficult for children to conceive that
the air is really anything, because they can-
not see it; so the first experiment should
be to show that the air is something we
can push against or that pushes against us.
Strike the air with a fan and we feel there
is something which the fan pushes; we
feel the wind when it is blowing and it is
very difficult for us to walk against a hard
wind. If we hold an open umbrella in the
hand while we jump from a step, we feel
buoyed up because the air presses up
against the umbrella. The air presses up
against the wings of the birds just as it
does against the open umbrella. The bird
flies by pressing down upon the air with
its wings just as a boy jumps high by
pressing down with his hands on his vault-
ing pole.
34
ANIMALS
Study wing and note: (a) That the
wings open and close at the will of the
bird, (b) That the feathers open and shut
on each other like a fan. (c) When the
wing is open the wing quills overlap, so
Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.
Common tern. While we are having winter
this bird spends the summer in South Amer-
ica. It will return to spend our summer with
us
that the air cannot pass through them.
(d) When the wing is open it is curved
so that it is more efficient, for the same
reason that an umbrella presses harder
against the atmosphere when it is open
than when it is broken by the wind and
turned wrong side out.
A wing feather has the barbs on the
front edge lying almost parallel to the
quill, while those on the hind edge come
off at a wide angle. The reason for this
is easy to see, for this feather has to cut
the air as the bird flies; and if the barbs on
the front side were like those of the other
side, they would be torn apart by the
wind. The barbs on the hind side of the
feather form a strong, close web so as to
press down on the air and not let it
through. The wing quill is curved; the
convex side is up and the concave side
below during flight. The concave side,
like the umbrella, catches more air than
the upper side; the down stroke of the
wings is forward and down; while on the
up stroke, as the wing is lifted, it bends
at the joint like a fan turned sidewise, and
offers less surface to resist the air. Thus,
the up stroke does not push the bird down.
Observations should be made on the
use of the bird's tail in flight. The hen
spreads her tail like a fan when she flies
to the top of the fence; the robin does
likewise when in flight. The fact that the
tail is used as a rudder to guide the bird
in flight, as well as to give more surface
for pressing down upon the air, is hard for
the younger pupils to understand, and
perhaps can be best taught by watch-
ing the erratic unbalanced flight of young
birds whose tail feathers are not yet
grown.
The tail feather differs from the wing
feather in that the quill is not curved, and
the barbs on each side are of about equal
length and lie at about the same angle on
each side of the quill. See Fig. p. 30.
SUGGESTED READING — The Bird Book,
by Fannie H. Eckstorm; Bird Flight, by
Gordon C. Aymar; Bird Life, by Frank M.
Chapman; Birds and Their Attributes, by
Glover M. Allen; The Book of Bird Life,
by A. A. Allen; The Children's Boole of
Birds ( First Book of Birds and Second
Book of Birds), by Olive Thorne Miller;
Nature — by Seaside and Wayside, by
Mary G. Phillips and Julia M. Wright,
Book 3, Plants and Animals.
LESSON 3
How BIRDS FLY
LEADING THOUGHT — A bird flies by
pressing down upon the air with its wings,
which are made especially for this pur-
pose. The bird's tail acts as a rudder dur-
ing flight.
METHOD — The hen, it is hoped, will
by this time be tame enough so that the
teacher may spread open her wings for
the children to see. In addition, have a
detached wing of a fowl such as is used in
farmhouses instead of a whisk-broom.
OBSERVATIONS — i . Do you think a
bird's wings correspond to our arms? If
so why?
2. Why do birds flap their wings when
they start to fly?
3. Can you press against the air with
a fan?
4. Why do you jump so high with a
vaulting pole? Do you think the bird uses
the air as you use the pole?
BIRDS
5. How are the feathers arranged on the
wing so that the bird can use it to press
on the air?
6. If you carry an umbrella on a windy
morning, which catches more wind, the
under or the top side? Why is this? Does
the curved surface of the wing act in the
same way?
7. Take a wing feather. Are the barbs
as long on one side of the quill as on the
other? Do they lie at the same angle from
the quill on both sides? If not why?
8. Which side of the quill lies on the
outer side and which on the inner side of
the wing?
9. Is the quill of the feather curved?
10. Which side is uppermost in the
wing, the convex or the concave side?
Take a quill in one hand and press the
tip against the other hand. Which way
does it bend more easily, toward the con-
vex or the concave side? What has this to
do with the flight of the bird?
^11. If trie bird flies by pressing the
wings against the air on the down stroke,
why does it not push itself downward with
its wings on the up stroke?
12. What is the shape and arrangement
of the feathers which prevent pushing the
bird back to earth when it lifts its wings?
13. Why do you have a rudder to a
boat?
14. Do you think a bird could sail
through the air without something to steer
with? What is the bird's rudder?
15. Have you ever seen a young bird
whose tail is not yet grown, try to fly?
If so, how did it act?
16. Does the hen when she flies keep
the tail closed or open like a fan?
17. Compare a tail feather with a wing
feather and describe the difference.
MIGRATION OF BIRDS
The travelogues of birds are as fascinat-
ing as our favorite stories of fairies, ad-
venture, and fiction. If we could accom-
pany certain birds, such as the Arctic
terns, on their spring and autumn trips,
the logs of the trips would be far more ex-
citing than some recorded by famous avia-
tors. The Arctic tern seems to hold the
record for long-distance flight. Its nest is
made within the bounds of the Arctic cir-
cle and its winter home is in the region of
the Antarctic circle. The round-trip mile-
age for this bird during a year is about
22,000 miles. Wells W. Cooke, a pioneer
student of bird migration, has called atten-
tion to the interesting fact that the Arctic
tern " has more hours of daylight than any
other animal on the globe. At the north-
ern nesting-site the midnight sun has
already appeared before the birds' arrival,
and it never sets during their entire
stay at the breeding grounds. During two
months of their sojourn in the Antarctic
the birds do not see a sunset, and for the
rest of the time the sun dips only a little
way below the horizon and broad day-
light is continuous. The birds, therefore,
have twenty-four hours of daylight for at
least eight months in the year, and during
the other four months have considerably
more daylight than darkness." It is true
that few of our birds take such long trips
as does the Arctic tern; but most birds do
travel for some distance each spring and
fall.
Each season brings to our attention cer-
tain changes in the bird population. Dur-
ing late summer, we see great flocks of
swallows; they are on telephone or tele-
graph wires, wire fences, clothes lines, or
aerial wires. They twitter and flutter and
seem all excited. For a few days, as they
prepare for their southern journey, they
are seen in such groups, and then are
seen no more until the following spring.
Some birds do not gather in flocks before
leaving for the winter; they just disappear
and we scarcely know when they go. We
may hear their call notes far over our
heads as they wing their way to theii
winter homes. Some birds migrate only
during the day, others go only during the
36
ANIMALS
night, and others may travel by either day
or night.
Those birds that do not migrate are
called permanent residents. In the east-
ern United States chickadees, jays? downy
After Cooke
The migration routes of the golden plover.
The dotted area is the summer home and
nesting place; the black area is the winter
home. Migration routes are indicated by ar-
rows. On the southern route the plover makes
a flight of 2,400 miles from Labrador to South
America
woodpeckers, nuthatches, grouse, and
pheasants are typical examples of the per-
manent resident group. These birds must
be able to secure food under even the
most adverse conditions. Much of their
food is insect life found in or about trees;
some fruits and buds of trees, shrubs, and
vines are also included in their diet.
Birds that travel are called migratory
birds. If the spring migrants remain with
us for the summer, we call them our sum-
mer residents. Fall migrants that remain
with us for the winter are called winter
residents. The migrants that do not re-
main with us but pass on to spend the
summer or winter in some other area are
called our transients or visitors. Of course,
we must remember that the birds which
visit us only for a short time are summer
residents and winter residents in other
parts of the country. Our summer resi-
dents are the winter residents of some
other area.
In spring we await with interest the
arrival of the first migrants. These birds
are, in general, those which have spent
the winter only a comparatively short dis-
tance away. In the eastern United States,
we expect robins, red-winged blackbirds,
song sparrows, and bluebirds among the
earliest migrants. In many species the
males arrive first; they may come as much
as two weeks ahead of the females. The
immature birds are usually the last to ar-
rive. The time of arrival of the first mi-
grants is determined somewhat by weather
conditions; their dates cannot be pre-
dicted with as much accuracy as can those
of birds which, having spent the winter at
a greater distance from us, arrive later
when the weather is more favorable. In
some places, for example at Ithaca, New
York, bird records have been kept each
season for more than thirty years. With
the information from these records, it is
possible to indicate almost to a day when
certain birds, such as barn swallows, ori-
oles, or hummingbirds, may be expected
to arrive. Usually the very first birds of a
kind to arrive are those individuals which
will within a few days continue their
northward journey. The later arrivals are
usually those that remain to become sum-
mer residents. In some species all indi-
viduals are migrants; for southern New
York the white-throated sparrow is repre-
sentative of such a group. It winters far-
ther south and nests farther north than
southern New York.
Why do birds migrate? This question
has often been asked; but in answer to
it we must say that while we know much
about where birds go and how fast they
travel, we still know actually very little
about the reasons for their regular seasonal
journeys.
As the airplane pilot has man-made in-
struments to aid him in reaching a certain
airport, so the birds have a well-developed
sense of direction which guides them to
their destination. Each kind of bird
seems, in general, to take the route fol-
BIRDS
37
lowed by its ancestors; but this route edited by Gilbert Grosvenor and Alex-
may be varied if for any reason food ander Wetmore; The Children's Boot of
should become scarce along the way. Such Birds ( First Book of Birds and Second
routes are so exactly followed year after Book of Birds), by Olive Thorne Miller;
year that they are known as laiies of mi- Flight Speed of Birds, by May Thacher
gration. Persons desiring to study a cer- Cooke (U. S. Department of Agriculture,
tain species of bird can have excellent op-
portunities to do so by being at some
good vantage point along this lane. Some-
times undue advantage has been taken of
certain birds, especially hawks. Persons
desiring to kill these birds have collected
at strategic points along the lanes and
wantonly killed many of them. As a result
of such activities sanctuaries have been
established at certain places along the
lanes to give added protection to birds.
The routes north and south followed
by a given species of bird may lead
over entirely different parts of the country;
these are called double migration routes.
They may vary so much that one route
may lead chiefly over land while the other
may lead over the ocean. The golden
plover is an example of such a case. See
the migration map.
Much valuable information as well as
pleasure can be gained from keeping a
calendar of migration and other activities
of birds. It is especially interesting dur-
ing the spring months when first arrivals
are recorded if daily lists are made of all
species observed. In summer, nesting ac-
tivities and special studies of an individual
species provide something of interest for Circular 428); The Migration of North
each day. More pleasure can be derived American Birds, by Frederick C. Lincoln
from the hobby if several people take it (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Circu-
up and compare their findings. Interests lar 363); Nature— by Seaside and Way-
in photography, sketching, or nature-story side, by Mary G. Phillips and Julia M.
writing are natural companions of such Wright, Book 3, Plants and Animals; Our
bird study. Winter Birds, by Frank M. Chapman;
SUGGESTED READING — Bird Friends, by Pathways in Science, by Gerald S. Craig
Gilbert H. Trafton; Bird Life, by Frank and Co-authors, Book 2, Out-of-doors,
M. Chapman; Birds and Their Attributes, Book 5, Learning about Our World; The
by Glover M. Allen; Birds of America, ed- Stir of Nature, by William H. Can; Trav-
ited by T. Gilbert Pearson; Birds of New eling with the Birds, by Rudyerd Boulton;
York, by E. H. Eaton; The Boole of Bird The Travels of Birds, by Frank M. Chap-
Life, by A. A. Allen; The Book of Birds, man.
© General Biological Supply House, Chicago
The travels of the bobolink. The migration
routes 0) the bobolink are shorter than those
of the plover and follow land more closely
ANIMALS
EYES AND EARS OF BIRDS
The hen's eyes are placed at the side
of the head so that she cannot see the
same object with both eyes at the same
time, and thus she has the habit of looking
at us first with one eye and then the other
to be sure she sees correctly. The position
of the hen's eyes gives her a command of
her entire environment. All birds have
much keener eyes than we have; and they
can adjust their eyes for either near or
far vision much more effectively than we
can; some hawks, flying high in the air,
can see mice on the ground.
A wide range of colors is found in the
eyes of birds: white, red, blue, yellow,
brown, gray, pink, purple, and green are
found in the iris of different species. The
Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.
A duck hawk. Notice the strong hooked
beak, the keen eye, and the prominent
nostril
hen's eye consists of a black pupil at the
center, which must always be black in
any eye, since it is a hole through which
enters the image of the object. The iris of
the hen's eye is yellow; there is apparently
no upper lid, but the lower lid comes up
during the process of sleeping. When the
bird is drowsy the little film lid comes
out from the corner of the eye and spreads
over it like a veil; just at the corner of our
own eye, next the nose, is the remains of
this film lid, although we cannot move it
as the hen does.
The hearing of birds is very acute, al-
though in most cases the ear is simply
a hole in the side of the head, and is more
or less covered with feathers. The hen's
ear is like this in many varieties of chick-
ens; but in others and in the roosters there
are ornamental ear lobes.
SUGGESTED READING — The Children's
Boole of Birds ( First Book of Birds and
Second Book of Birds), by Olive Thorne
Miller.
LESSON 4
EYES AND EARS OF BIRDS
LEADING THOUGHT — The eyes and ears
of birds are peculiar and very efficient.
METHOD — - The hen or chicken and the
rooster should be observed for this lesson;
notes may be made in the poultry yard or
in the schoolroom when the birds are
brought there for study.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Why does the hen
turn her head first this side and then that
as she looks at you? Can she see an object
with both eyes at once? Can she see well?
2. How many colors are there in a hen's
eye? Describe the pupil and the iris.
3. Does the hen wink as we do? Has
she any eyelids?
4. Can you see the film lid? Does it
come from above or below or the inner or
outer corner? When do you see this film
lid?
5. Where are the hen's ears? How do
they look? How can you tell where the
rooster's ears are?
6. Do you think the hen can see and
hear well?
BIRDS
39
THE FORM AND USE OF BEAKS
Since the bird uses its arms and hands
for flying, it has been obliged to develop
other organs to take their place, and of
their work the beak does its full share. It
is well to emphasize this point by letting
the children at recess play the game of
trying to eat an apple or to put up their
books and pencils with their arms tied
behind them; such, an experiment will
show how naturally the teeth and feet
come to the aid when the hands are use-
less.
The hen feeds upon seeds and insects
which she finds on or in the ground; her
beak is horny and sharp and acts not only
as a pair of nippers, but also as a pick as
she strikes it into the soil to get the seed
A. A. Allen
A red-eyed vireo repairing her nest
or insect. She has already made the place
bare by scratching away the grass or sur-
face of the soil with her strong, stubby
toes. The hen does not have any teeth,
nor does she need any, for her sharp beak
enables her to seize her food; and she
does not need to chew it, since her gizzard
does this for her after the food is swal-
lowed.
The duck's bill is broad, flat, and much
softer than the hen's beak. The duck feeds
upon water insects and plants; it obtains
these by thrusting its head down into the
water, seizing the food, and holding it
fast while the water is strained out through
the sieve at the edges of the beak; for this
use, a wide, flat beak is necessary. It would
be quite as impossible for a duck to pick
up hard seeds with its broad, soft bill as it
would for the hen to get the duck's food
Leonard K. Beyer
These holes were made by a pileated wood-
pecker in search of insects
out of the water with her narrow, horny
bill.
Both the duck and hen use their bills
for cleaning and oiling their feathers and
for fighting also; the hen strikes a sharp
blow with her beak, making a wound like
a dagger, while the duck seizes the enemy
and simply pinches hard. Both fowls also
use their beaks for turning over the eggs
when incubating, and also as an aid to the
feet when they make nests for themselves.
The nostrils are very noticeable and are
situated in the beak near the base. How-
ever, we do not believe that birds have a
keen sense of smell, since their nostrils are
not surrounded by a damp, sensitive, soft
surface as are the nostrils of the deer and
dog. This arrangement aids these animals
to detect odor in a marvelous manner.
SUGGESTED READING — The Bird Book,
by Fannie H. Eckstorm; Bird Life, by
4°
ANIMALS
Frank M. Chapman; The Book of Bird
Life, by A, A. Allen; The Boole of Birds,
edited "by Gilbert Grosvenor and Alex-
ander Wetmore; The Children's Book of
Birds (First Book of Birds and Second
Book of Birds), by Olive Thorne Miller;
Nature — by Seaside and Wayside, by
Mary G. Phillips and Julia M. Wright,
Book 3, Plants and Animals.
LESSON 5
THE BEAK OF A BIRD
LEADING THOUGHT — Each kind of bird
has a beak especially adapted for getting
its food. The beak and feet of a bird are
its chief weapons and implements.
METHOD — Study first the beak of the
hen or chick and then that of the duckling
or gosling.
OBSERVATIONS — i . What kind of food
does the hen eat and where and how does
she find it in the field or garden? How is
her beak adapted to get this food? If her
beak were soft like that of a duck could
she peck so hard for seeds and worms?
Has the hen any teeth? Does she need
any?
2. Compare the bill of the hen with
that of the duck. What are the differ-
ences in shape? Which is the harder?
3. Note the saw teeth along the edge
of the duck's bill. Are these for chewing?
Do they act as a strainer? Why does the
duck need to strain its food?
4. Could a duck pick up a hen's food
from the earth or the hen strain out a
duck's food from the water? For what
other things than getting food do these
fowls use their bills?
5. Can you see the nostrils in the bill
of a hen? Do they show plainer in the
duck? Do you think the hen can smell as
keenly as the duck?
It is said that nature-study teaching
should be accurate, a statement that every
good teacher will admit without debate;
but accuracy is often interpreted to mean
completeness, and then the statement
cannot pass unchallenged. To study " the
dandelion" " the robin/7 with emphasis
on the particle " the/' working out the
complete structure, may be good labora-
tory work in botany or zoology for ad-
vanced pupils, but it is not an elementary
educational process. It contributes noth-
ing more to accuracy than does the natural
order of leaving untouched all those
phases of the subject that are out of the
child's reach; while it may take out the
life and spirit of the work, and the spiritual
quality may be the very part that is most
worth the while. Other work may provide
the formal " drill "; this should supply the
quality and vivacity. Teachers often say to
me that their children have done excellent
work with these complete methods, and
they show me the essays and drawings;
but this is no proof that the work is com-
mendable. Children can be made to do
many things that they ought not to do and
that lie beyond them. We all need to go
to school to children. — " THE OUTLOOK
TO NATURE/' L. H. BAILEY
Weather and wind and waning moon,
Plain and hilltop under the sky,
Ev'ning, morning and blazing noon,
Brother of all the world am 1.
The pine-tree, linden and the maize,
The insect, squirrel and the kine,
All — natively they live their days —
As they live theirs, so I live mine,
I know not where, I know not what: —
Believing none and doubting none
Whatever befalls it counteth not, —
Nature and Time and I are one.
— L. H. BAILEY
THE FEET OF BIRDS
Obviously, the hen is a digger of the
soil; her claws are long, strong, and slightly
hooked, and her feet and legs are covered
with horny scales. These scales protect her
feet from injury when they are used in
scratching the hard earth to lay bare the
seeds and insects hiding there. The hen
is a very good runner indeed. She lifts
BIRDS
41
her wings a little to help, much as an
athletic runner uses his arms, and so can
cover ground with amazing rapidity, her
strong toes giving her a firm foothold. The
track she makes is very characteristic; it
consists of three toe-marks projecting for-
ward and one backward. A bird's toes are
numbered thus: the hind toe is number
one, the inner toe number two, the mid-
dle toe three, and the outer toe four.
Duck's foot and hen's foot with
toes numbered
A duck has the same number of toes as
the hen, but there is a membrane, called
the web, which joins the second, third,
and fourth toes, making a fan-shaped foot;
the first or hind toe has a little web of
its own. A webbed foot is first of all a
paddle for propelling its owner through
the water; it is also a very useful foot on
the shores of ponds and streams, since its
breadth and flatness prevent it from sink-
ing into the soft mud.
The duck's legs are shorter than those
of the hen and are placed farther back
and wider apart. They are essentially
swimming organs and are not fitted for
scratching or for running. They are
placed at the sides of the bird's body so
that they may act as paddles, and are
farther back so that they may act like the
wheel of a propeller in pushing the bird
along. We often laugh at a duck on land,
since its short legs are so far apart and so
far back that its walk is necessarily an awk-
ward waddle; but we must always remem-
ber that the duck is naturally a water bird,
and on the water its movements are grace-
ful. Think how a hen would appear if
she attempted to swim! The duck's body
is so poorly balanced on its short legs that
it cannot run rapidly; and if chased even
a short distance it will fall dead from the
effort, as many a country child has dis-
covered to his sorrow when he tried to
drive the ducks home from the creek or
pond to coop. The long hind claw of the
hen enables her to clasp a roost firmly
during the night; a duck's foot could not
do this and the duck sleeps squatting on
^
© General Biological Supply House, Chicago
Types oj bills and feet
the ground. However, the Muscovy ducks,
which are not good swimmers, have been
known to perch.
SUGGESTED READING — The Bird Book,
by Fannie H. Eckstorm; Bird Life, by
Frank M. Chapman; Birds and Their At-
tributes, by Glover M. Allen; The Book of
Bird Life, by A. A. Allen; The Children's
Boole of Birds (First Book of Birds and
Second Book of Birds), by Olive Thorne
Miller; Nature — by Seaside and Wayside,
by Mary G, Phillips and Julia M. Wright,
Book 3, Plants and Animals.
LESSON 6
THE FEET OF BIRDS
LEADING THOUGHT — The feet of birds
are shaped so as to assist the bird in get-
ting its food as well as for locomotion.
METHOD — The pupils should have op-
ANIMALS
portunity to observe the chicken or hen
and a duck as they move about; they
should also observe the duck swimming.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Are the toes of the
hen long and strong? Have they long,
sharp claws at their tips?
2. How are the legs and feet of the
hen covered and protected?
3. How are the hen's feet and legs fitted
for scratching the earth, and why does she
wish to scratch the earth?
4. Can a hen run rapidly? What sort of
track does she make?
5. You number your fingers with the
thumb as number one and the little finger
as five. How do you think the hen's toes
are numbered?
6. Has the duck as many toes as the
hen? What is the chief difference between
the feet of the duck and of the hen?
7. Which of the duck's toes are con-
nected by a web? Does the web extend to
the tips of the toes? How does the web
help the duck?
8. Are the duck's legs as long as the
hen's? Are they placed farther forward or
farther back than those of the hen? Are
they farther apart?
9. Can a duck run as well as a hen? Can
the hen swim at all?
10. Where does the hen sleep and how
does she hold on to her perch? Could the
duck hold on to a perch? Does the duck
need to perch while sleeping?
SONGS OF BIRDS
Anyone who attempts to recognize
birds by sight alone misses much of the
pleasure that comes to those who have
±.Wood Thrushes.
A-. O|ivc -b<w.ke4 Thru*/*.
J-.»32.r
* •, J&l
gy
"*' ( Ph.ro $<s) <Cflne*verO
taken the time and pains to learn bird
songs and use them as a means of bird
recognition. It is true that not all people
have a talent for music; but anyone in-
terested in birds can learn to identify the
songs and most of the call notes of com-
mon birds.
The observer will notice that in most
cases only the male bird sings, but a few
exceptions are recorded, notably the fe-
male rose-breasted grosbeak and cardinal
grosbeak, which sing under some condi-
tions. Birds do most of their singing in the
early morning and during the spring and
early summer months. The male birds
have not only a favorite time of day and
a particular season of the year during
which they do most of their singing, but
they even have a certain perch or narrowly
defined territory from which they sing.
Each person will need to decide how he
can best remember bird songs. Most peo-
ple will doubtless use such methods as
were used by earlier bird students. Long
literary descriptions were given for each
song. Alexander Wilson, for instance, de-
scribes the call of the male blue jay as
" repeated creakings of an ungreased
wheelbarrow." Often the call of a particu-
lar bird is put into words; in many cases
these words have come to be accepted as
the common name of the bird, such as
bobwhite and whip-poor-will. The imagi-
nation of students may suggest certain
words to represent the song or call notes
of a bird. These are often more easily re-
membered than the song itself.
Some ornithologists have developed
BIRDS
complicated systems of recording bird
songs as musical scores. Wilson Flagg and
F. S. Mathews are well-known names in
this field. Such a method has its limita-
tions because many variations of bird
songs cannot be indicated by the charac-
ters used in writing music. The song of a
bird written as music is not usually recog-
nizable when played on a musical instru-
ment. Other ornithologists have devel-
oped more graphic methods of recording
bird songs. One leader in this field, A. A.
Saunders, has proposed and used a system
employing lines, dots? dashes, and sylla-
bles. This system is very interesting and is
a useful one to a person who has a good
ear for music. One of the latest methods
of recording bird songs has been devel-
oped by the Department of Ornithology,
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. By
43
this method bird songs are photographed
on moving picture film and later may be
recorded on phonograph records; these
records can be played over and over again
to give the student practice in identifying
bird songs. Sound pictures have also been
produced; the pictures of the various birds
are shown on the screen as their songs are
being heard by the audience.
SUGGESTED READING — Bird Friends, by
Gilbert H. Trafton; Birds and Their Attri-
butes, by Glover M. Allen; The Boole of
Bird Life, by A. A. Allen; The Bool: of
Birds, edited by Gilbert Grosvenor and
Alexander Wetmore; Field Boot of Wild
Birds and Their Music, by F. Schuyler
Mathews; A Guide to Bird Songs, by
Aretas A. Saunders; Songs of Wild Birds
and More Songs of Wild Birds, by Albert
R. Brand.
ATTRACTING BIRDS
If suitable and sufficient food, water,
shelter, and nesting sites are provided, and
if protection is given from such enemies
as cats and thoughtless men, it is possi-
ble to attract many kinds of birds to
home grounds or gardens. The most logi-
cal time to begin to attract birds is during
the winter months; but the best time is
whenever one is really interested and is
willing to provide the things most needed
by the birds. Certain types of food, such
as suet or sunflower seeds, are sought by
birds at any season. During the summer
months water for drinking and bathing
may be more desired than food, but in
the winter almost any seeds, fruits, or
fatty foods are welcome.
In the spring nesting boxes properly
constructed and placed will do much to
attract some kinds of birds, especially
those that normally nest in holes in trees.
An abundance of choice nesting materials
will entice orioles, robins, or chipping
sparrows to nest near by. Straws, sticks,
feathers, cotton, strings, or even hairs
from old mattresses may be put out as in-
ducements to prospective bird tenants.
An invitation to our garden friends to par-
take of suet and peanuts in addition to their
regular fare
The spring is also a good time to plant
fruit-bearing trees, shrubs, and vines; these
ANIMALS
A bird bath in the author's garden
natural food counters become more attrac-
tive each year as they grow larger and pro-
duce more fruit and better nesting places
for birds.
Autumn is the ideal time to establish
feeding centers to which the birds may be
attracted during the winter months. Food,
such as suet or seeds, should be put at a
great many places throughout the area in
which one wishes to attract birds. The
birds will gradually work their way from
one of these feedings points to another;
soon it will be possible to concentrate the
feeding at one point, and the birds will
continue to come to that point as long
as food is provided there.
SUGGESTED READING — The A B C of
Attracting Birds, by Alvin M. Peterson;
Bird Houses Boys Can Build, by Albert F.
Siepert; Birds of the Wild — How to
Make Your Home Their Home, by Frank
C. Pellett; Bird Study for Schools Series,
published by the National Association of
Audubon Societies (Part III, Winter
Feeding, Part IV, Bird Houses); The
Boole of Bird Life, by A. A. Allen; Boy
Bird House Arcliitecfure, by Leon H. Bax-
ter; The Children's Book of Birds (First
Book of Birds and Second Book of Birds),
by Olive Thorne Miller; Homes for Birds,
by E. R. Kalmbach and W. L. McAtee
(U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farm-
ers' Bulletin 1456); How to Attract Birds
in Northeastern United States, How to
Attract Birds in Northwestern United
States, How to Attract Birds in the Middle
Atlantic States, How to Attract Birds in
the East Central States, by W. L. McAtee
(U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farm-
ers' Bulletins 621, 760, 844, 912); How to
Have Bird Neighbors, by S. Louise Patte-
son; Our Winter Birds, by Frank M.
Chapman; Permanent Bird Houses, by
Gladstone Califf; Song-bird Sanctuaries,
with Tables of Trees, Shrubs and Vines
Attractive to Birds, by Roger T. Peterson;
Wild Bird Guests, by Ernest H. Baynes;
Methods of Attracting Birds, by Gilbert
H. Trafton,
Olin Sewall PetthifiiH, Jr.
Ruby-throated hummingbird attracted to a
vial containing sweetened water
BIRDS
45
VALUE OF BIRDS
Did you ever try to calculate in dollars
the pleasure that you receive from seeing
or hearing the first spring migrants? The
robin, bluebird, and meadowlark bring
cheer to thousands of people every year.
Indeed, it would be difficult to find any-
one, except perhaps in large cities, who
does not notice the arrival of at least
some spring birds — the robins on the
lawn, the honk of the wild geese overhead,
or the song sparrows as they sing from the
top of a shrub. Birds are interesting to
most people because of their mere pres-
ence, their songs, their colors, or their
habits. Persons engaged in nature-study
are led outdoors and thus have opened to
them many other nature fields.
One needs to observe a bird for only
a short time to discover for himself what
has been known by scientists for many
years, that birds are of great economic
importance. Watch a chickadee or nut-
hatch as it makes its feeding rounds on
a winter day. Note how carefully each
tiny branch is covered by the chickadee
and what a thorough examination of the
limbs and trunks is made by the nuthatch.
Countless insect eggs as well as insects
are consumed. On a sunny day in spring,
observe the warblers as they feed about the
newly opened leaves and blossoms of the
trees. See them as they hunt tirelessly for
their quota of the tiny insects so small
that they are generally overlooked by
larger birds. It must be remembered too
that some birds do, at times, take a toll
of cultivated crops; this is especially true
of the seed-eating and insectivorous birds.
But they deserve some pay for the work
they do for man, and so in reality he should
not begrudge them a little fruit or grain.
Some of the birds of prey are active all
the time; the hawks work in the daytime
and the owls come on duty for the night
shift. Countless destructive small mam-
mals and insects are eaten by them; thus
they tend to regulate the numbers of
numerous small pests of field and wood,
thereby preventing serious outbreaks of
such animals. There has been much dis-
cussion of the real economic status of
hawks and owls; many food studies have
been made and the general conclusion is
that most species are more useful than
harmful. It is true that some species do
take a toll of game birds, song birds, and
poultry; but they include also in their diet
other animal forms, many of which are
considered harmful. One individual bird
Leonard K. Beyer
A red-eyed vireo on her nest. Vireos live
largely on insects gleaned jrom the under
surfaces of leaves and jrom crevices in bark
may be especially destructive and thus
give a bad name to an entire species.
There are even garbage gatherers among
the birds; vultures, gulls, and crows serve
in this capacity. The vultures are com-
monly found in the warmer parts of the
country and serve a most useful purpose
by their habit of devouring the unburied
bodies of dead animals. The gulls are the
scavengers of waterways and shore lines.
The crow is omnivorous — that is, it eats
both plant and animal food; but it seems
to like carrion as well as fresh meat.
The farmer and the gardener owe quite
a debt of thanks to the birds that eat weed
seeds. Of course there are still bountiful
crops of weeds each year; but there would
Verne Morton
A goldfinch nest in winter
be even more weeds if it were not for the
army of such seed-eating birds as spar-
rows, bobwhites? and doves.
The game birds, such as grouse, pheas-
ant, and bobwhite are important today,
chiefly from the standpoint of the recrea-
tion they afford sportsmen and other
lovers of the outdoors. The food habits of
game birds do not present much of an
economic problem; the birds are not nu-
merous enough at the present time to be
an important source of meat for man as
they were in pioneer days.
Thus, a brief consideration of a few
types of birds will show even a casual
observer that birds have economic import-
ance and that each species seems to have
a definite work to perform.
SUGGESTED READING — Bird Friends, by
Gilbert H. Trafton; Birds and Their At-
tributes, by Glover M. Allen; Birds in
Their Relation to Man, by Clarence M.
Weed and Ned Dearborn; The Book of
Bird Life, by A. A. Allen; The Book of
Birds, edited by Gilbert Grosvenor and
Alexander Wetmore; The Children's
Book of Birds ( First Book of Birds and
Second Book of Birds), by Olive Thorne
Miller; The Practical Value of Birds, by
Junius Henderson.
LESSON 7
THE STUDY OF BIRDS' NESTS
IN WINTER
There are very good reasons for not
studying birds' nests in summer, since the
birds misinterpret familiarity on the part
ANIMALS
of eager children and are likely, in con-
sequence, to abandon both nest and lo-
cality. But after the birds have gone to
sunnier climes and the empty nests are
the only mementos we have of them, then
we may study these habitations carefully
and learn how to appreciate properly
the small architects which made them.
I think that every one of us who care-
fully examines the way that a nest is made
must have a feeling of respect for its
clever little builder.
I know of certain schools where the
children make large collections of these
winter nests, properly labeling each, and
thus gain a new interest in the bird life
of their locality. A nest when collected
should be labeled in the following man-
ner:
The name of the bird which built the
nest.
Where the nest was found.
If in a tree, what kind?
How high from the ground?
After a collection of nests has been
made, let the pupils study them accord-
ing to the following outline:
i. Where was the nest found?
(a) If on the ground, describe the lo-
cality.
(b) If on a plant, tree, or shrub, tell
the species, if possible.
(c) If on a tree, tell where it was on
a branch — in a fork, or hanging by the
end of the twigs.
l
Leonard K. Beyer
A homemade wren house and its occupant
BIRDS
(d) How high from the ground, and
what was the locality?
(e) If on or in a building, how situ-
ated?
2. Did the nest have any arrangement
to protect it from rain?
3. Give the size of the nest, the di-
ameter of the inside and the outside; also
the depth of the inside.
4. What is the form of the nest? Are
its sides flaring or straight? Is the nest
shaped like a cup, basket, or pocket?
5. What materials compose the out-
side of the nest and how are they ar-
ranged?
6. Of what materials is the lining made,
and how are they arranged? If hair or
47
feathers are used, on what creature did
they grow?
7. How are the materials of the nest
held together, that is, are they woven,
plastered, or held in place by environ-
ment?
8. Had the nest anything peculiar
about it either in situation, construction,
or material that would tend to render it
invisible to the casual glance?
SUGGESTED READING — The Book of
Bird Life, by A. A. Allen; Nature — by
Seaside and Wayside, by Maw G. Phillips
and Julia M. Wright, Book 3", Plants and
Animals; Ornithology Laboratory Note-
book, by A. A. Allen; A Year in the Won-
derland of Birds, by Hallam Hawksworth.
Chicks, a few days old
II, S. Department of Agriculture
CHICKEN WAYS
Darne Nature certainly pays close at-
tention to details. An instance of this is
the little tooth on the tip of the upper
mandible of the young chick, which aids
it in breaking out of its egg-shell prison;
since a tooth in this particular place
is of no use later, it disappears. The chil-
dren are delighted with the beauty of a
fluffy little chick with its bright, question-
ing eyes and its life of activity as soon as
it is freed from the shell. What a contrast
to the blind, bare, scrawny young robin,
which seems to be all mouth! The differ-
ence between the two is fundamental
since it gives a means for distinguishing
ground birds from perching birds. The
young partridge, quail, turkey, and chick
are clothed and active and ready to go
with the mother in search of food as soon
as they are hatched; while the young of
ANIMALS
An anxious stepmother. The ducklings 'pay
her little heed
the perching birds are naked and blind,
being kept warm by the brooding mother,
and fed and nourished by food brought
by their parents, until they are large
enough to leave the nest. The down
which covers the young chick differs from
the feathers which come later; the down
has no quill but consists of several flossy
threads coming from the same root; later
on, this down is pushed out and off by
the true feathers which grow from the
same sockets. The pupils should see that
the down is so soft that the little, fluffy
wings of the chick are useless until the
real wing feathers appear.
We chew food until it is soft and fine,
then swallow it, but the chick swallows it
whole; after being softened by juices from
the stomach the food passes into a little
mill, in which is gravel that the chicken
has swallowed. This gravel helps to grind
up the food. This mill is called the gizzard
and the pupils should be taught to look
carefully at this organ the next time they
have chicken for dinner. A chicken has no
muscles in the throat, like ours, to en-
able it to swallow water as we do. Thus,
it has first to fill its beak with water, then
hold it up so the water will flow down
the throat. As long as the little chick has
its mother's wings to sleep under, it does
not need to put its head under its own
wing; but when it grows up and spends
the night upon a roost, it usually tucks
its head under its wing while sleeping.
The conversation of the barnyard fowl
covers many elemental emotions and is
easily comprehended. It is well for the
children to understand from the first that
the notes of birds mean something defi-
nite. The hen clucks when she is lead-
ing her chicks afield so that they will
know where she is in the tall grass; the
chicks follow " cheeping " or " peeping/7
as the children say, so that she will know
where they are; but if a chick feels itself
lost its " peep " becomes loud and dis-
consolate; on the other hand, there is no
sound in the world so full of cosy con-
tentment as the low notes of the chick
when it cuddles under the mother's wing.
When a hen finds a bit of food she utters
rapid notes which call the chicks in a
hurry, and when she sees a hawk she gives
a warning " q-r-r " which makes every
chick run for cover and keep quiet. When
hens are taking their sun and dust baths
together, they seem to gossip and we can
almost hear them saying, " Didn't you
think Madam Dorking made a great fuss
over her egg today? " Or, " That over-
grown young rooster has got a crow to
match his legs, hasn't he? " Contrast
these low tones with the song of the hen
as she issues forth in the first warm days
Poultry Dept., N. Y. State College of Agriculture
White leghorns are prolific layers
BIRDS
of spring and gives to the world one of the
most joyous songs of all nature. There is
quite a different quality in the triumphant
cackle of a hen telling to the world that
she has laid an egg and the cackle which
comes from heing startled. When a hen
is sitting or is not allowed to sit, she is
nervous and irritable, and voices her
mental state by scolding. When she is
really afraid, she squalls; and when seized
by an enemy, she utters long, horrible
squawks. The rooster crows to assure his
flock that all is well; he also crows to show
other roosters what he thinks of himself
and of them. The rooster also has other
notes; he will question you as you ap-
proach him and his flock, and he will
give a warning note when he sees a hawk;
when he finds some dainty tidbit, he calls
his flock of hens to him and they usually
arrive just in time to see him swallow the
morsel.
When roosters fight, they confront each
other with their heads lowered and then
try to seize each other by the back of the
neck with their beaks, or strike each other
with the wing spurs, or tear with the leg
spurs. Weasels, skunks, rats, hawks, and
crows are the most common enemies of
the fowls, and often a rooster will attack
one of these invaders and fight valiantly;
the hen also will fight if her brood is dis-
turbed.
SUGGESTED READING — Farm Animals,
by James G. Lawson; Nature and Science
Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison
E. Howe, Book 3, Surprises; The Pet
Book, by Anna B. Comstock.
LESSON 8
CHICKEN WAYS
LEADING THOUGHT — Chickens have
interesting habits of life and extensive
conversational powers.
METHOD — For this lesson it is neces-
sary that the pupils observe the inhabit-
ants of the poultry yard and answer these
questions a few at a time.
OBSERVATIONS — i . Did the chick get
out of the egg by its own efforts? Of what
use is the little tooth which is on the tip
49
of the upper part of a young chick's beak?
Does this remain?
2. What is the difference between the
down of the chick and the feathers of
the hen? The little chick has wings; why
can it not fly?
3. Why is the chick just hatched so
pretty and downy, while the young robin
is so bare and ugly? Why is the young
chick able to see while the young 'robin
is blind?
4. How does the young chick get its
food?
5. Does the chick chew its food be-
fore swallowing? If not, why?
6. How does the chick drink? Why
does it drink this way?
7. Where does the chick sleep at night?
Where will it sleep when it is grown up?
8. Where does the hen usually put her
head when she is sleeping?
9. How does the hen call her chicks
when she is with them in the field?
10. How does she call them to food?
11. How does she tell them there is a
hawk in sight?
12. What notes does the chick make
when it is following its mother? When it
gets lost? When it cuddles under her
wing?
13. What does the hen say when she
has laid an egg? When she is frightened?
Parts of the bird labeled
This figure may be placed on the blackboard wher/j
pupils may consult it when studying colors and mark-
ings of birds.
5°
ANIMALS
When she is disturbed while sitting on
eggs? When she is grasped by an enemy?
How do hens talk together? Describe a
hen's song.
14. When does the rooster crow?
What other sounds does he make?
15. With what weapons does the
rooster fight his rivals and his enemies?
16. What are the natural enemies of
the barnyard fowls and how do they es-
cape them?
Pigeon houses of the upper Nile
J. H. Comstock
PIGEONS
There is mention of domesticated
pigeons by writers three thousand years
ago; and Pliny relates that the Romans
were fervent pigeon fanciers at the be-
ginning of the Christian era. All of our
domestic varieties of pigeons have been
developed from the Rock pigeon, a wild
species common in Europe and Asia. The
carrier pigeon was probably the first to
be specially developed because of its use-
fulness; its love and devotion to its mate
and young and its homesickness when
separated from them were used by man
for his own interests. When a knight of
old started off on a Crusade or to other
wars, he took with him several pigeons
from the home cote; and after riding
many days he wrote a letter and tied it
to the neck or under the wing of one of
his birds, which he then set free, and it
flew home with its message; later he would
set free another in like manner. The draw-
back to this correspondence was that it
went only in one direction; no bird from
home brought message of cheer to the
wandering knight. Nowadays mail routes,
telegraph wires, and wireless currents en-
mesh our globe, and the pigeon as a car-
rier is out-of-date; but fanciers still perfect
the homer breed and train pigeons for
very difficult flight competitions, some
of them over distances of hundreds of
miles. Recently a homer made one thou-
sand miles in two days, five hours, and
fifty minutes.
The natural food of pigeons is grain;
we feed them cracked corn, wheat, peas,
Kafir corn, millet, and occasionally hemp
BIRDS
Homing pigeons
Verne Morton
seed; it is best to feed mixed rations as
the birds tire of a monotonous diet. Pi-
geons should be fed twice a day; the pi-
geons and their near relatives, the doves7
are the only birds which can drink like
a horse, that is, with the head lowered.
The walk of a pigeon is accompanied by a
peculiar nodding as if the head were in
some way attached to the feet, and this
movement sends waves of iridescent
colors over the bird's plumage. The flight
of the pigeon is direct without soaring,
the wings move rapidly and steadily, the
birds circling and sailing as they start or
alight. The crow flaps hard and then
sails for a distance when it is inspecting
the ground, while the hawk soars on mo-
tionless wings. It requires closer attention
to understand the language of the pigeon
than that of the hen, nor has it so wide
a range of expression as the latter; how-
ever, some emotions which the children
will understand are voiced in the cooing.
The nest is built of grass and twigs; the
mother pigeon lays two eggs for a sitting;
but in some breeds a pair will raise from
seven to twelve broods per year. The eggs
hatch in from sixteen to eighteen days,
and both parents share the labors of in-
cubating. In the case of the homer the
father bird sits from about 10 A.M. to
4 P.M. and the mother the remainder of
the day and night. The devotion of pi-
geons to their mates and to their young
is great, and has been sung by the poets
and praised by the philosophers during
many ages; some breeds mate for life. The
young pigeons or squabs are fed in a pe-
culiar manner; in the crops of both par-
ents is secreted a cheesy substance, known
as pigeon milk. The parent seizes the beak
of the squab in its own and pumps food
from its own crop into the stomach of
the young. This nutritious food is given
to the squab for about five days and then
replaced by grain which has been softened
in the parents' stomachs, until the squabs
are old enough to feed themselves. Rats,
mice, weasels, and hawks are the chief
enemies of the pigeons; since pigeons
cannot fight, their only safety lies in
flight.
As the original Rock pigeon built in
caves, our domesticated varieties naturally
build in the houses we provide for them.
A pigeon house should not be built for
more than fifty pairs; it should be well
ventilated and kept clean; it should face
the south or east and be near a shallow,
running stream if possible. The nest boxes
should be about twelve inches square and
nine inches in height with a door at one
side, so that the nest may remain hidden.
In front of each door there should be a
little shelf to act as a balcony on which
the resting parent bird may sit and coo
to relieve the monotony of the sitter's task.
Some breeders make a double compart-
J. Deraary
Pouter pigeons
ANIMALS
ment instead of providing a balcony,
while in Egypt branches are inserted in
the wall just below the doors of the very
ornamental pigeon houses. The houses
should be kept clean and whitewashed
with lime to which carbolic acid is added
in the proportion of one teaspoonful of
acid to two gallons of the wash; the leaf
stems of tobacco may be given to the
pigeons as material for building their
nests, so as to help keep in check the
LESSON 9
PIGEONS
Hugh Spencer
Domestic pigeon
bird lice. There should be near the pigeon
house plenty of fresh water for drinking
and bathing; also a box of table salt, and
another of cracked oyster shell and one
of charcoal as fine as ground coffee. Salt
is very essential to the health of pigeons.
The house should be high enough from
the ground to keep the inmates safe from
rats and weasels.
SUGGESTED READING — Animal Heroes,
by Ernest Thompson Seton (Story of
Arnaux); Audubon Bird Leaflets 2, 6,
101; Cher Ami, the Story of a Carrier
Pigeon, by Marion B. Cothren; Farm
Animals, by James G. .Lawson; Homing
Pigeons: Their Care and Training (U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Farmers7 Bul-
letin 1373); Mother Nature Series, by
Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell,
Book 3, In Field and Forest; The Pet
BooJk, by Anna B. Comstock; also, read-
ings on pages 28-29.
LEADING THOUGHT — The pigeons dif-
fer from other birds in appearance and
also in their actions. Their nesting habits
are very interesting and there are many
things that may be done to make the
pigeons comfortable. They were, in an-
cient days, used as letter carriers.
METHOD — If there are pigeons kept
in the neighborhood, it is best to encour-
age the pupils to observe these birds out-
of-doors. Begin the work with an interest-
ing story and with a few questions which
will arouse the pupils' interest in the
birds.
OBSERVATIONS — i . For an out-of-door
exercise during recess let the pupils ob-
serve the pigeon and tell the colors of the
beak, eyes, top of the head, back, breast,
wings, tail, feet, and claws. This exercise
is excellent training to fit the pupils to
note quickly the colors of wild birds.
2. On what do pigeons feed? Are they
fond of salt?
3. Describe how a pigeon drinks. How
does it differ in this respect from other
birds?
4. Describe the peculiar movement of
the pigeon when walking.
5. Describe the pigeon's flight. Is it
rapid, high in the air, do the wings flap
constantly, etc.? What is the chief differ-
ence between the flight of pigeons and
that of crows or hawks?
6. Listen to the cooing of a pigeon and
see if you can understand the different
notes.
7. Describe the pigeon's nest. How
many eggs are laid at a time?
8. Describe how the parents share the
labors in hatching the eggs. How long is
it after the eggs are laid before the young
hatch?
9. How do the parents feed their young
and on what material?
10. What are some enemies of pigeons
and how do they escape from them? How
can we protect the pigeons?
11. Describe how a pigeon house
should be built.
BIRDS
12. What must you do for pigeons to bers, that I cannot refrain from quoting
keep them healthy and comfortable?
13. How many breeds of pigeons do
you know? Describe them.
For my own part I readily concur with
you in supposing that housedoves are de-
rived from the small blue rock-pigeon,
Columba livia, for many reasons.
But what is worth a hundred arguments
is the instance you give in Sir Roger
Mostyns housedoves in Caernarvonshire;
which, though tempted by plenty of food
and gentle treatment, can never be pre-
vailed on to inhabit their cote for any
time; but as soon as they begin to breed,
betake themselves to the fastnesses of
Ormshead, and deposit their young in
safety amidst the inaccessible caverns and
precipices of that stupendous promon-
tory. " You may drive nature out with a
pitchfork, but she will always return ":
"Naturam expellas furca . . . tamen us-
que recurret."
Virgil, as a familiar occurrence, by way
of simile, describes a dove haunting the
cavern of a rock in such engaging num-
the passage.
Qualis spelunca subito commota Co-
lumba,
Cui domus, et dulces latebroso in pumice
nidi,
Fertur in arva volans, plausumque exter-
rita pennis
Dat tecto ingentem, mox aere lapsa
quieto,
Radit iter liquidum, celeres neque com-
movet alas.
(Virg. Aen. v. 213—217)
As when a dove her rocky hold forsakes,
Roused, in a fright her sounding wings
she shakes;
The cavern rings with clattering: — out
she flies,
And leaves her callow care, and cleaves
the skies;
At first she flutters: — but at length she
springs
To smoother flight, and shoots upon her
wings.
(Dryden's Translation)
— WHITE OF SELBOURNE
THE CANARY AND THE GOLDFINCH
In childhood the language of birds and
animals is learned unconsciously. What
child, who cares for a canary, does not
understand its notes which mean loneli-
ness, hunger, eagerness, joy, scolding,
fright, love, and song!
The pair of canaries found in most
cages are not natural mates. The union is
one de convenance, forced upon them by
people who know little of bird affinities.
We could hardly expect that such a mat-
ing would be always happy. The singer,
as the male is called, is usually arbitrary
and tyrannical and does not hesitate to
lay chastising beak upon his spouse. The
expression of affection of the two is usu-
ally very practical, consisting of feeding
each other with many beguiling notes
and much fluttering of wings. The singer
may have several songs; whether he has
many or few depends chiefly upon his
education; he usually shows exultation
when singing by throwing the head back
like a prima donna, to let the music well
K. ' ' 11
Leonard K. Beyer
A goldfinch on her nest in a hawthorn
54
ANIMALS
forth. He is usually brighter yellow in
color with more brilliantly black markings
than his mate; she usually has much gray
in her plumage. But there are about fifty
varieties of canaries and each has distinct
color and markings.
Canaries should be given a more varied
diet than most people think. The seeds
we buy or that we gather from the plan-
tain or wild -grasses, they eat eagerly.
They like fresh, green leaves of lettuce and
chickweed and other tender herbage;
they enjoy bread and milk occasionally.
There should always be a piece of cuttle-
fish bone or sand and gravel where they
can get it, as they need grit for digestion.
Above all, they should have fresh water.
Hard-boiled egg is given them while nest-
ing. The canary seed which we buy for
them is the product of a grass in the
Canary Islands. Hemp and rape seed are
also sold for canary food.
The canary's beak is wide and sharp
and fitted for shelling seeds; it is not a
beak fitted for capturing insects. The
canary, when drinking, does not have to
lift the beak so high in the air in order
to swallow the water as do some birds.
The nostrils are in the beak and are easily
seen; the ear is hidden by the feathers.
The canary is a fascinating little creature
when it shows interest in an object; it
has such a knowing look, and its per-
fectly round, black eyes are so intelligent
and cunning. If the canary winks, the
act is so rapid as to be seen with difficulty,
but when it is drowsy, the little inner lid
appears at the inner corner of its eye and
the outer lids close so that we may be
sure that they are there; the lower lid
covers more of the eye than the upper.
The legs and toes are covered with
scale armor; the toes have long, curved
claws that are neither strong nor sharp
but are especially fitted for holding to
the perch; the long hind toe with its
stronger claw makes complete the grasp
on the twig. When the canary is hopping
about on the bottom of the cage we can
see that its toes are more fitted for hold-
ing to the perch than for walking or hop-
ping on the ground.
When the canary bathes, it ducks its
head and makes a great splashing with its
wings and likes to get thoroughly wet.
Afterward, it sits all bedraggled and
" humped up " for a time and then usu-
ally preens its feathers as they dry. When
going to sleep, it at first fluffs out its
feathers and squats on the perch, draws
back its head, and looks very drowsy.
Later it tucks its head under its wing for
the night and looks like a little ball of
feathers on the perch.
Canaries make a great fuss when build-
ing their nest. A pasteboard box is usually
given them with cotton and string for
lining; usually one pulls out what the
other puts in; and they both industriously
tear the paper from the bottom of the
cage to add to their building material.
Finally, a makeshift of a nest is com-
pleted and the eggs are laid. If the singer
is a good husband, he helps incubate the
eggs and feeds his mate and sings to her
frequently; but often he is quite the re-
verse and abuses her abominably. The
nest of the caged bird is very different
in appearance from the neat nests of grass,
plant down, and moss which the wild an-
cestors of these birds made in some safe
retreat in the shrubs or evergreens of the
Canary Islands. The canary eggs are pale
blue, marked with reddish-brown. The
incubation period is 13 to 14 days. The
young are as scrawny and ugly as most
little birds and are fed upon food par-
tially digested in the parents' stomachs.
Their first plumage usually resembles
that of the mother.
In their wild state in the Canary Islands
and the Azores, the canaries are olive
green above with golden yellow breasts.
When the heat of spring begins, they
move up the mountains to cooler levels
and come down again in the winter. They
may rear three or four broods on their
way up the mountains, stopping at suc-
cessive heights as the season advances,
until finally they reach the high peaks.
THE GOLDFINCH OR THISTLE BIRD
The goldfinches are small birds but
their songs are so sweet and reedy that
BIRDS
they seem to fill the world with music
more effectually than many larger birds.
They are fond of the seeds of wild grass,
and especially of thistle seed; and they
throng the pastures and fence comers
where the thistles hold sway. In summer,
the male has bright yellow plumage with
a little black cap " pulled down over his
nose " like that of a grenadier. He has also
a black tail and wings with white-tipped
coverts and primaries. The tail feathers
have white on their inner webs also, which
does not show when the tail is closed.
The head and back of the female are
brown and the under parts yellowish
white, with wings and tail resembling
those of the male except that they are not
so vividly black. In winter the male dons
a dress more like that of his mate; he loses
his black cap but keeps his black wings
and tail.
The song of the goldfinch is exquisite
and he sings during the entire period of
his golden dress; he sings while flying as
well as when at rest. The flight is in itself
beautiful, being wavelike up and down,
in graceful curves. Mr. Chapman says
that on the descending half of the curve
the male sings " Per-chick or-ree." The
Audubon Educational Leaflet No. 17
A pair of goldfinches
A. A. Allen
The nest and eggs of a goldfinch in an elm tree
goldfinch's call notes and alarm notes are
very much like those of the canary.
Since the goldfinches live so largely
upon seeds of grasses, they stay with us in
small numbers during the winter. During
this period both parents and young are
dressed in olive green, and their sweet call
notes are a surprise to us of a cold, snowy
morning, for they are associated in our
memory with summer. The male dons his
winter suit in October.
The goldfinch nest is a mass of fluffi-
ness. These birds make feather beds for
their young, or perhaps we should say
beds of down, since it is the thistledown
which is used for this mattress. The out-
side of the nest consists of fine shreds
of bark or fine grass closely woven; but
the inner portion is a mat of thistledown
— a cushion an inch and a half thick for
a nest which has an opening of scarcely
three inches; sometimes the outside is
ornamented with lichens. The nest is usu-
ally placed in some bush or tree, often in
an evergreen, and ordinarily not more
than five or six feet from the ground; but
sometimes it is placed thirty feet high.
The eggs are from four to six in number
and bluish white in color. The female
builds the nest, her mate cheering her with
song meanwhile; he feeds her while she is
incubating and helps feed the young. A
strange thing about the nesting habits
of the goldfinches is that the nest is not
built until August. It has been surmised
that this nesting season is delayed until
56 ANIMALS
there is an abundance of thistledown for
building material.
SUGGESTED READING — American Bird
Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon Bird
Leaflet 17; Bird Stories from Burroughs,
by John Burroughs; Canaries: Their Care
and Management by Alexander Wet-
more (U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Farmers7 Bulletin 1327); The Pet Book,
by Anna B. Comstock (Canary); also,
readings on pages 28-29.
LESSON 10
THE CANARY AND THE GOLDFINCH
LEADING THOUGHT — The canary is a
close relative of the common wild gold-
finch. If we compare the habits of the two
we can understand how a canary might
live if it were free.
METHOD — Bring a canary to the
schoolroom and ask for observations.
Ask the pupils to compare the canary
with the goldfinches which are common
in the summer. The canary offers oppor-
tunity for very close observation, which
will prove excellent training for the pupils
for beginning bird study.
OBSERVATIONS — i . If there are two
canaries in the cage, are they always pleas-
ant to each other? Which one is the
" boss "? How do they show displeasure
or bad temper? How do they show affec-
tion for each other?
2. Which one is the singer? Does the
other one ever attempt to sing? What
other notes do the canaries make besides
singing? How do they greet you when
you bring their food? What do they say
when they are lonesome and hungry?
3. Does the singer have more than one
song? How does he act while singing?
Why does he throw back his head like
an opera singer when singing?
4. Are the canaries all the same color?
What is the difference in color between
the singer and the mother bird? Describe
the colors of each in your notebook as
follows: top and sides of head, back, tail,
wings, throat, breast, and under parts.
5. What does the canary eat? What
sort of seeds do we buy for it? What seeds
do we gather for it in our garden? Do the
goldfinches live on the same seeds? What
does the canary do to the seeds before
eating them? What tools does he use to
take off the shells?
6. Notice the shape of the canary's
beak. Is it long and strong like a robin's?
Is it wide and sharp so that it can shell
seeds? If you should put an insect in the
cage would the canary eat it?
7. Why do we give the canary cuttle-
bone? Note how it takes off pieces of the
bone. Could it do this if its beak were not
sharp?
8. Note the actions of the birds when
they drink. Why do they do this?
9. Can you see the nostrils? Where are
they situated? Why can you not see the
ear?
10. When the canary is interested in
looking at a thing how does it act? Look
closely at its eyes. Does it wink? How
does it close its eyes? When it is drowsy
can you see the little inner lid come from
the corner of the eye nearest the beak?
Is this the only licl?
11. How are the legs and feet covered?
Describe the toes. Compare the length of
the claw with the length of the toe. What
is the shape of the claw? Do you think
that claws and feet of this shape are better
fitted for holding to a branch than for
walking? Note the arrangement of the
toes when the bird is on its perch. Is the
hind toe longer and stronger? If so, why?
Do the canaries hop or walk about the
bottom of the cage?
12. What is the attitude of the canary
when it goes to sleep at night? How does
it act when it takes a bath? How does it
get the water over its head? Over its back?
What does it do after the bath? If we
forget to put in the bath dish how does
the bird get its bath?
NESTING HABITS TO BE OBSERVED
IN THE SPRING
13. When the canaries are ready to
build a nest, what material do we furnish
them for it? Does the father bird help
the mother to build the nest? Do they
strip off the paper on the bottom of the
BIRDS
cage for nest material? Describe the nest
when it is finished.
14. Describe the eggs carefully. Does
the father bird assist in sitting on the
eggs? Does he feed the mother bird when
she is sitting?
15. How long after the eggs are laid
before the young ones hatch? Do both
parents feed the young? Do they swallow
the food first and partially digest it before
giving it to the young?
16. How do the very young birds look?
What is their appearance when they
leave the nest? Does the color of their
plumage resemble that of the father or
the mother?
17. Where did the canaries originally
come from? Find the place on the map.
THE GOLDFINCH
LEADING THOUGHT — Goldfinches are
seen at their best in late summer or
September, when they appear in flocks
wherever the thistle seeds are found in
abundance. Goldfinches so resemble the
canaries in form, color, song, and habits
that they are called wild canaries.
METHOD — The questions for this les-
son may be given to the pupils before the
end of school in June. The results may be
reported to the teacher in class when the
school begins in the autumn.
OBSERVATIONS — i . Where do you find
the goldfinches feeding? How can you
distinguish the father from the mother
birds and from the young ones in color?
2. Describe the colors of the male gold-
finch and also of the female as follows:
crown, back of head, back, tail, wings,
throat, breast, and lower parts. Describe in
particular the black cap of the male.
3. Do you know the song of the gold-
finch? Is it like the song of the canary?
What other notes has the goldfinch?
4. Describe the peculiar flight of the
goldfinches. Do they fly high in the
air? Do you usually see them singly or in
flocks?
5. Where do the goldfinches stay dur-
ing the winter? What change takes place
in the coat of the male during the winter?
What do they eat during the winter?
6. At what time of year do the gold-
finches build their nests? Describe the
nest. Where is it placed? How far above
the ground? How far from a stream or
other water? Of what is the outside made?
The lining? What is the general appear-
ance of the nest? What is the color of the
eggs?
Sometimes goldfinches one by one will
drop
From low-hung branches; little space
they stop,
But sip, and twitter, and their feathers
sleek,
Then off at once, as in a wanton frealc;
Or perhaps, to show their black and
golden wings;
Pausing upon their yellow flutterings,
KEATS
THE ROBIN
Most of us think we know the robin
well, but very few of us know definitely
the habits of this, our commonest bird.
The object of this lesson is to form in the
pupils a habit of careful observation, and
to enable them to read for themselves the
interesting story of this little life which
is lived every year before their eyes. More-
over, a robin notebook, if well kept, is a
treasure for any child; and the close obser-
vation necessary for this lesson trains the
pupils to note in a comprehending way
the habits of other birds. It is the very
best preparation for bird study of the right
sort.
A few robins occasionally find a swamp
where they can obtain food to nourish
them during the northern winter, but for
the most part they go in flocks to our
southern states, where they settle in
swamps and cedar forests and live chiefly
upon fruits and berries. The robins do not
ANIMALS
Leonard K. Beyer
A robin and its hungry young
nest or sing while in Southland. When the
robins first come to us in the spring they
feed on wild berries, being especially fond
of those of the Virginia creeper. As soon as
the frost is out of the ground they begin
feeding on earthworms, cutworms, white
grubs, and other insects. The male robins
come first, but do not sing much until
their mates arrive.
The robin is ten inches long and the
English sparrow is only six and one-third
inches long; the pupils should get the sizes
of these two birds fixed in their minds for
comparison in measuring other birds. The
father robin is much more decided in
color than his mate; his beak is yellow,
there is a yellow ring about the eye and a
white spot above it. The head is black and
the back slaty-brown; the breast is bril-
liant reddish brown or bay and the throat
is white, streaked with black. The mother
bird has paler back and breast and has no
black upon the head. The wings of both
are a little darker than the back; the tail
is black with the two outer feathers tipped
with white. These white spots do not show
except when the bird is flying and are
" call colors " — that is, they enable the
birds to see each other and thus keep to-
gether when flying in flocks during the
night. The white patch made by the un-
der tail-coverts serves a similar purpose.
The feet and legs are strong and dark in
color.
The robin has many sweet songs and he
may be heard in the earliest dawn and also
in the evenings; if he wishes to cheer his
mate he may burst into song at any time.
He feels especially songful before the
summer showers, when he seems to sing,
" I have a theory, a theory, it's going
to rain/' And he might well say that
he also has a theory, based on experi-
ence, that a soaking shower will drive
many of the worms and larvae in the soil
up to the surface where he can get them.
Besides these songs the robins have a great
variety of notes which the female shares,
although she is not a singer. The agoniz-
ing, angry cries they utter when they see
a cat or squirrel must express their feelings
fully; they give a very different warning
note when they see crow or hawk. This
note is hard to describe; it is a long, not
very loud squeak.
A robin can run or hop as pleases him
best, and it is interesting to see one, while
hunting earthworms, run a little distance,
then stop to bend the head and listen
and look; when he finally seizes the earth-
worm he braces himself on his strong legs
and tugs manfully until he sometimes al-
Herbert E. Gray
Four blue eggs in a nest on a rail fence
BIRDS
most falls over backward as the worm lets
go its hold. The robins, especially at nest-
ing time, eat many insects as well as earth-
worms.
The beginning of a robin's nest is very
interesting; much strong grass, fine straw,
leaves, and rootlets are brought and placed
on a secure support. When enough of this
material is collected and arranged, the bird
goes to the nearest mud puddle or stream
margin and fills its beak with soft mud;
it then goes back and " peppers " it into
the nest material; after the latter is soaked,
the bird gets into it and molds it to the
body by turning around and around. In
one case which the author watched the
mother bird did this part of the building,
although the father worked industriously
in bringing the other materials. After the
nest is molded but not yet hardened, it is
lined with fine grass or rootlets. If the
season is very dry and there is no soft
mud at hand, the robins can build without
the aid of this plaster. Four eggs, which
are an exquisite greenish blue in color, are
usually laid.
Both parents share the monotonous
business of incubating, and in the instance
under the eyes of the author the mother
bird was on the nest at night; the period
of incubating is from eleven to fourteen
days. The most noticeable thing about
Leonard K. Beyer
A robin on its nest
A. A. Allen
Young robins. Their spotted breasts show
their relationship to the thrushes
a very young robin is its wide, yellow-mar-
gined mouth, which it opens like a satchel
every time the nest is jarred. This wide
mouth cannot but suggest to anyone who
sees it that it is meant to be stuffed, and
the two parents work very hard to fill it.
Both parents feed the young and often the
father feeds the mother bird while she
is brooding. Professor Treadwell experi-
mented with young robins and found that
each would take 68 earthworms daily;
these worms if laid end to end would
measure about 14 feet. Think of 14 feet
of earthworm being wound into the little
being in the nest; no wonder that it grows
so fast! I am convinced that each pair of
robins about our house has its own special
territory for hunting worms, and that any
trespasser is quickly driven off. The young
birds' eyes are opened when they are from
six to eight days old, and by that time the
feather tracts, that is, the places where
the feathers are to grow, are covered by
the spinelike pin-feathers; these feathers
push the down out and it often clings to
their tips. In eleven days the birds are
pretty well feathered; their wing feathers
are fairly developed, but alas, they have
no tail feathers! When a young robin flies
from the nest he is a very uncertain and
tippy youngster, not having any tail to
steer him while flying, or to balance him
when alighting.
It is an anxious time for the old robins
when the young ones leave the nest, and
6o
ANIMALS
they flutter about and scold at anyone
who comes in sight, so afraid are they that
injury will come to their inexperienced
young ones; for some time the parents
care for the fledglings, solicitously feeding
them and giving them warnings of danger.
The young robin shows in its plumage its
relation to the thrush family, for it is
yellowish and very spotted and speckled,
especially on the breast. The parents may
raise several broods, but they rarely use the
Leonard K. Beyer
This robin became so entangled in ma-
terial it had gathered for its nest tha{t it was
unable to fly
same nest for two consecutive broods,
both because it may be infested with para-
sites and because it is more or less soiled,
although the mother robin works hard to
keep it clean; she carries away all waste
matter in her beak and drops it at some
distance from the nest. Robins do not sing
much after the breeding season is over
until after they have molted. They are
fond of cherries and other pulp fruits and
often do much damage to such crops. The
wise orchardist will plant a few Russian
mulberry trees at a reasonable distance
from his cherry trees, and thus, by giving
the robins a fruit which they like better,
and which ripens a little earlier, he may
save his cherries. It has been proved con-
clusively that the robins are far more bene-
ficial than damaging to the farmer; they
destroy many noxious insects, two-thirds
of their food throughout the year consist-
ing of insects; during April and May they
do a great work in destroying cutworms.
The robins stay in the North later than
most migrating birds, often not leaving
us entirely before November. Occasional
stragglers may remain all winter, in some
protected areas. Their chief enemies in
northern climates are cats, crows, and
squirrels. Cats should be taught to let
birds alone (see lesson on cat) or should
be killed. The crows have driven the
robins into villages where they can build
their nests under the protection of man.
If crows venture near a house to attack the
robins, firing a gun at them once or twice
will give them a hint which they are not
slow to take. The robins of an entire
neighborhood will attack a nest-robbing
crow, but usually too late to save the nest-
lings. The robins can defend themselves
fairly well against the red squirrel unless
he steals the contents of the nest while
the owners are away. There can be no
doubt that the same pair of robins return
to the same nesting place year after year.
On the Cornell University campus a
robin lacking the white tip on one side
of his tail was noted to have returned to
the same particular feeding ground for
several years; and we are very certain that
the same female bird built in the vines of
our piazza for seven consecutive years; it
took two years to win her confidence, but
after that she seemed to feel as if she were
a part of the family and regarded us all
as friends. We were sure that during her
fifth year she brought a new young hus-
band to the old nesting site; probably
her faithful old husband had met with
some mischance during the winter.
SUGGESTED READING — American Bird
Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon
Bird Leaflet 46; Bird-House to Let, by
Mary F. Terrel; Bird Stories from Bur-
roughs, by John Burroughs; First Lessons
in Nature Study, by Edith M. Patch; Na-
ture and Science Readers, by Edith M.
Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book i.
Hunting, Book 2, Outdoor Visits, Book 5,
Science at Home; Nature Stories for CLII-
BIRDS
61
dren, Autumn, by Eva L. Gordon and
Jennie Hall; Science Stories, by Wilbur L.
Beauchamp, W. S. Gray and Co-authors,
Book i; also, readings on pages 28-29.
11
LESSON
THE ROBIN
LEADING THOUGHT — To understand all
we can about the life and ways of the
robin.
METHOD — For first and second grades
this work may be done by means of an
extra blackboard, or what is far better,
sheets of ordinary, buff, manila wrapping
paper fastened together at the upper end,
so that they may be hung and turned over
like a calendar. On the outside page make
a picture of a robin in colored chalk or
crayons, coloring according to the chil-
dren's answers to questions of series " b."
Devote each page to one series of ques-
tions, as given below. Do not show these
questions to the pupils until the time is
ripe for the observations. Those pupils
giving accurate answers to these questions
should have their names on a roll of honor
on the last page of the chart.
For third or higher grades the pupils
may have individual notebooks in which
each one may write his own answers to
the questions of the successive series,
which should be written on the black-
board at the proper time for the observa-
tions. This notebook should have a page
about 6x8 inches and may be made of any
blank paper. The cover or first page should
show the picture of the robin colored by
the pupil, and may contain other illus-
trative drawings, and any poems or other
literature pertinent to the subject.
OBSERVATIONS BY PUPILS — Series a
(to be given in March in the northern
states).
1. At what date did you see the first
robin this year?
2. Where did the robin spend the win-
ter? Did it build a nest or sing when in its
winter quarters?
3. What does it find to eat when it
first comes in the spring? How does this
differ from its ordinary food?
4. Does the robin begin to sing as soon
as it comes north?
Series b (to be given the first week of
April).
1. How large is the robin compared
with the English sparrow?
2. What is the color of the beak? The
eye? Around and above the eye?
3. The color of the top of the head?
The back? The throat? The breast?
4. Do all the robins have equally bright
colors on head, back, and breast?
5. What is the color of the wing
feathers?
6. What is the color of the tail feath-
ers? Where is the white on them? Can
the white spots be seen except during
flight of the bird? Of what use to the
robin are these spots?
7. Is there white on the underside of
the robin as it flies over you? Where?
8. What is the color of the feet and
legs?
Series c (to be given the second week
of April).
1 . At what time of day does the robin
sing? Is it likely to sing before a rain?
How many different songs does a robin
sing?
2. What note does a robin give when it
sees a cat?
3. What sounds do the robins make
when they see a crow or a hawk?
4. Does a robin run or walk or hop?
5. Do you think it finds the hidden
earthworm by listening? If so, describe the
act.
6. Describe how a robin acts as it pulls
a big earthworm out of the ground.
7. Do robins eat other food than earth-
worms?
Series d (to be given in the middle of
April or a little later) .
1. At what date did your pair of robins
begin to build their nest?
2. Where was the nest placed and with
what material was it begun?
3. Can you tell the difference in colors
between the father and mother birds? Do
both parents help in making the nest?
62
ANIMALS
4. How and with what material is the
plastering done? How is the nest molded
into shape? Do both birds do this part of
the work?
5. Where is the mud obtained and how
carried to the nest?
6. How is the nest lined?
Series e (to be given a week after
series d).
1. What is the number and color of
the eggs in the nest?
2. Do both parents do the sitting?
Which sits on the nest during the night?
3. Give the date when the first nestling
hatches.
4. How does the young robin look?
The color and size of its beak? Why is its
beak so large? Can it see? Is it covered
with down? Compare it to a young chick
and describe the difference between the
two.
5. What does the young robin do if it
feels any jar against the nest? Why does
it do this?
6. Do the young robins make any noise?
7. What do the parents feed their
young? Do both parents feed them? Are
the young fed in turns?
8. Do you believe each pair of robins
has a certain territory for hunting worms
which is not trespassed upon by other
robins?
Series f (to be given three days after
series e).
1. How long after hatching before the
young robin's eyes are open? Can you see
where the feathers are going to grow?
How do the young feathers look?
2. How long after hatching before the
young birds are covered with feathers?
3. Do their wing or tail feathers come
first?
4. How is the nest kept clean?
5. Give the date when the young robins
leave the nest. How do the old robins act
at this important crisis?
6. Describe the young robin's flight.
Why is it so unsteady?
7. How do the young robins differ in
colors of breast from the parents?
8. Do the parents stay with the young
for a time? What care do they give them?
9. If the parents raise a second brood,
do they use the same nest?
Series g (to be given for summer read-
ing and observations ) .
1. Do the robins sing all summer?
Why?
2. Do the robins take your berries and
cherries? How can you prevent them from
doing this?
3. Flow does the robin help us?
4. How long does it stay with us in the
fall?
5. What are the chief enemies of the
robin and how does it fight or escape
them? How can we help protect it?
6. Do you think the same robins come
back to us each year?
THE BLUEBIRD
Stern as were our Pilgrim Fathers, they
could not fail to welcome certain birds
with plumage the color of June skies,
whose sweet voices brought hope and
cheer to their homesick hearts at the close
of that first, long, hard winter of 1621.
The red breasts of these birds brought
to memory the robins of old England, and
so they were called " blue robins "; and
this name expresses well the relationship
implied, because the bluebirds and robins
of America are both members of the
thrush family, a family noted for exquisite
song.
The bluebirds are usually ahead of the
robins in the northward journey and often
arrive in New York arnid the blizzards of
early March, their soft, rich " curly " notes
bringing, even to the doubting mind, glad
convictions of coming spring. There is a
family resemblance between voices of
bluebird and robin, a certain rich quality
of tone; but the robin's song is far more
assertive and complex than is the soft,
BIRDS
"purling" song of the bluebird, which
has been vocalized as " tru-al-ly, tru-al-ly."
These love songs cease with the hard work
of feeding the nestlings, but may be heard
again as a prelude to the second brood in
June. The red breast of the bluebird is its
only color resemblance to the robin, al-
though the young bluebirds and robins are
both spotted, showing the thrush colors.
The robin is so much larger than the blue-
bird that commonly the relationship is
not noticed. This is easily explained be-
cause there is nothing to suggest a robin
in the exquisite cerulean blue of the blue-
bird's head, back, tail, and wings. This
color is most brilliant when the bird is
on the wing, in the sunshine. However,
there is a certain mirror-like quality in
these blue feathers; and among leaf shad-
ows or even among bare branches they
in a measure reflect the surroundings and
thus render the bird less noticeable.
The female is paler, being grayish blue
above and with only a tinge of red-brown
This bluebird is nesting in a cavity drilled by
a woodpecker the previous year
Leonard K. Beyer
A hollow fence post is a common home of
the bluebird. The young are fed chiefly on
insects
on the breast; both birds are white
beneath.
The bluebirds haunt open woods, fields
of second growth, and especially old or-
chards. They flit about in companies of
three or four until they mate for nesting.
While feeding, the bluebird usually sits on
a low branch keeping a keen eye on the
ground below, now and then dropping
suddenly on an unsuspecting insect and
then returning to its perch; it does not re-
main on the ground hunting food as does
the robin. The nest is usually built in a
hole in a tree or post and is made of soft
grass. A hollow apple tree is a favorite
nesting site.
In building birdhouses we should bear
in mind that a cavity about ten inches
deep and six inches in height and width
will give a pair of bluebirds room for
building a nest. The opening should not
be more than two or two and one-half
inches in diameter and there should be
no threshold; this latter is a very particu-
lar point. If there is a threshold or place
to alight upon, the sparrows are likely to
dispute with the bluebirds and drive them
away, but the sparrow does not care for a
64 ANIMALS
place which has no threshold. The box for
the bluebird may be made out of old
boards or may be a section of an old tree
trunk; it should be fastened from six to
fifteen feet above the ground, and should
be in nowise noticeable in color from its
surroundings. To protect the nest from
cats, barbed wire should be wound around
the tree or post below the box. If the box
for the nest is placed upon a post, the
barbed wire will also protect it from
the squirrels. The eggs are bluish white;
the young birds in their first feathers are
spotted on the back and have whitish
breasts mottled with brown. The food of
the nestlings is almost entirely insects. In
fact, this bird during its entire life is a
great friend to man. The food of the adult
is more than three-fourths insects and the
remainder is wild berries and fruits, the
winter food being largely mistletoe ber-
ries. It makes a specialty of beetles, cater-
pillars, and grasshoppers, and seems never
to touch any of our cultivated fruits. We
should do everything in our power to en-
courage and protect these birds from their
enemies, which are chiefly cats, squirrels,
and English sparrows.
The migration takes place in flocks dur-
ing autumn, but it is done in a most lei-
surely manner with frequent stops where
food is plenty. The bluebirds we see in
September are probably not the ones we
have had with us during the summer, but
are those which have come from farther
north.
They winter largely in the Gulf states;
the writer has often heard them singing
in midwinter in southern Mississippi. The
bluebirds seem to be the only ones that
sing while at their winter resorts. They live
the year round in the Bermudas, contrast-
ing their heavenly blue plumage with the
vivid red of the cardinals. The bluebird
should not be confused with the indigo
bunting; the latter is darker blue and has a
blue breast.
SUGGESTED READING — American Bird
Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon
Bird Leaflet 24; Bird-House to Let, by
Mary F. Terrel; Bird Stories from Bur-
roughs, by John Burroughs; First Lessons
in Nature Study, by Edith M. Patch; Na-
ture and Science Readers, by Edith M.
Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book i,
Hunting, Book 2, Outdoor Visits; Science
Stories, by Wilbur L. Beauchamp, W. S.
Gray and Co-authors, Book i; also, read-
ings on pages 28-29.
Winged lute that we call a bluebird,
You blend in a silver strain
The sound of the laughing waters,
The patter of spring's sweet rain,
The voice of the winds, the sunshine,
And fragrance of blossoming things.
Ah! You are an April poem,
That God has dowered with wings.
— " THE BLUEBIRD/' REXFORD
LESSON 12
THE BLUEBIRD
LEADING THOUGHT — The bluebird is
related to the robins and thrushes and is
as beneficial as it is beautiful. We should
study its habits and learn how to make
nesting boxes for it, and protect it in all
ways.
METHOD — The observations of this
lesson must be made in the field and by
the pupils individually. Give to each an
outline of questions to answer through
seeing. There should follow reading les-
sons on the bluebird's value to us and its
winter migrations, and the lesson should
end in discussions of the best way to build
boxes for its use in nesting season, its pro-
tection from cats and other enemies.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Which comes north
earlier in spring, the robin or the blue-
bird?
2. How do the two resemble each othei
and differ from each other?
3. Describe the bluebirds' song. Do
they sing all summer?
4. Describe the colors of the bluebird
as follows: the head, back, breast, under
parts, wings, tail. Flow does the male blue-
bird differ from his mate in colors?
5. Where were the bluebirds you saw?
What were they doing? If feeding, how
did they act?
6. Can you see the color of the blue-
bird as plainly when it is in a tree as when
it is flying? If not, why?
7. Where do the bluebirds build their
nests? Of what material are the nests
made? Do both parents work at the nest
building?
8. What is the color of the eggs? How
do the young birds look, when old enough
to leave the nest, as compared with their
parents?
9. What do the bluebirds eat? How do
they benefit us?
10. What can we do to induce the blue-
birds to live near our houses? How can we
protect them?
1 1 . Where do the bluebirds spend the
winter?
BIRDS 65
12. Make a colored picture of a blue-
bird. How can we tell the bluebird from
the indigo bunting?
13. What are the bluebirds* chief ene-
mies?
Hark/ 'tis the bluebird's venturous strain
High on the old fringed elm at the
gate -
Sweet-voiced, valiant on the swaying
bough,
Alert, elate,
Dodging the fitful spits of snow,
New England's poet-laureate
Telling us Spring has come again/
— THOMAS BAILEY ALDRICH
THE WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH
The busy nuthatch climbs his tree
Around the great bole spirally,
Peeping into wrinkles gray,
Under ruffled lichens gay,
Lazily piping one sharp note
From his silver mailed throat.
— MAURICE THOMPSON
Blithe and mellow is the ringing " ank,
ank " note of the nuthatch, and why need
we allude to its nasal timbre! While it
is not a strictly musical note, it has a most
enticing quality and translates into sound
the picture of bare-branched trees and the
feeling of enchantment which permeates
the forest in winter; it is one of the most
"woodsy" notes in the bird repertoire.
And while the singer of this note is not
so bewitching as his constant chum the
chickadee, yet he has many interesting
ways quite his own. Nor is this "ank,
ank " his only note. I have often heard
a pair talking to each other in sweet confi-
dential syllables, " wit, wit, wit/' very dif-
ferent from the loud note meant for the
world at large. The nuthatches and chicka-
dees hunt together all winter; it is no mere
business partnership but a matter of con-
genial tastes. The chickadees hunt over
the twigs and smaller branches, while the
nuthatches usually prefer the tree trunks
and the bases of the branches; both birds
like the looks of the world upside down,
and while the chickadee hangs head down
from a twig, the nuthatch is quite likely
to alight head down on a tree bole, hold-
ing itself safely in this position by thrust-
ing its toes out at right angles to the body,
thus getting a firm hold upon the bark.
Sometimes its foot will be twisted com-
pletely around, the front toes pointed
up the tree. The foot is well adapted for
clinging to the bark as the front toes are
strong and the hind toe is very long
and is armed with a strong claw. Thus
equipped, this bird runs about on the tree
so rapidly that it has earned the name of
"tree mouse/' It often ascends a tree
trunk spirally but is not so hidebound in
this habit as is the brown creeper. It runs
up or down freely, head first, and never
flops down backwards like a woodpecker.
In color the nuthatch is bluish gray
above with white throat and breast and
66
reddish underparts. The sides of the head
are white; the black cap extends back upon
the neck but is not " pulled down " to the
eyes as with the chickadees. The wing
feathers are dark brown edged with pale
gray. The upper middle tail feathers are
bluish like the back; the others are dark
brown and tipped with white in such a
ANIMALS
acorn into a seam in the bark and then
throw back its head, woodpecker fashion,
and drive home its chisel beak. But it does
not always use common sense in this
habit. I have often seen one cut off a piece
of suet, fly off and thrust it into some
crevice, and hammer it as hard as if it
were encased in a walnut shell. This al-
A family oj white-breasted nuthatches
S. A. Grimes
manner that the tail when spread shows
a broad white border on both sides. The
most striking contrast between the chicka-
dee and nuthatch in markings is that the
latter lacks the black bib. However, its
entire shape is very different from that
of the chickadee and its beak is long and
slender, being as long as its head or longer,
while the beak of the chickadee is a
short, sharp little pick. The bill of the
nuthatch is fitted to reach in crevices of
the bark and pull out hiding insects, or
to hammer open the shell of nut or acorn
and get both the meat of the nut and the
grub feeding upon it. It will wedge an
ways seems bad manners, like carrying off
fruit from table d'hote; but the nuthatch
is polite enough in using a napkin, for
after eating the suet, it invariably wipes its
bill on a branch most assiduously, first
one side then the other, until it is per-
fectly clean.
The nuthatches are a great benefit to
our trees in winter, for then is when they
hunt for hiding pests on the trunks.
Their food consists of beetles, caterpillars,
pupas of various insects, also seeds of rag-
weed, sunflowers, acorns, etc. While the
nuthatch finds much of its food on trees,
yet Mr. Torrey has seen it awkwardly turn-
BIRDS
ing over fallen leaves hunting for insects,
and Mr. Baskett says it sometimes catches
insects on the wing and gets quite out of
breath from this unusual exercise.
It is only during the winter that we com-
monly see the nuthatches, for during the
nesting season they usually retire to the
deep woods, where they may occupy a
cavity in a tree used by a woodpecker last
year, or may make a hole for themselves
with their sharp beaks. The nest is lined
with leaves, feathers, and hair; from five
to nine creamy, speckled eggs are the
treasure of this cave.
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Leaflet 59; The Nature Hour, by Lucille
Nicol, S. M. Levenson, and Teressa Kahn,
Sixth Year, Spring; also, readings on
pages 28-29.
LESSON 13
THE NUTHATCH
LEADING THOUGHT — The nuthatch is
often a companion of the chickadees and
woodpeckers. It has no black bib, like the
chickadee, and it alights on a tree trunk
head downward, which distinguishes it
from woodpeckers.
METHOD — This bird, like the chicka-
dee and downy, gladly shares the suet ban-
A characteristic pose
L. H. Bailey
Leonard K. Beyer
The nuthatch runs head first down tree
trunks in search of insects. Here he is eating
suet which has been fastened to the tree
quet we prepare for them and may be ob-
served at leisure while " at table." The
contrast between the habits of the nut-
hatch and those of its companions makes
it a most valuable aid in stimulating close
and keen observation on the part of the
pupils.
OBSERVATIONS — i . Where have you
seen the nuthatches? Were they with
other birds? What other birds?
2. Does a nuthatch usually alight on
the ends of the branches of a tree or on
the trunk and larger limbs? Does it usu-
ally alight head down or up? When it runs
down the tree, does it go head first or does
it back down? When it ascends the tree,
does it follow a spiral path? Does it use
its tail for a brace when climbing, as does
the downy?
3. How does the arrangement of the
nuthatch's toes assist it in climbing? Are
the three front toes of each foot directed
downward when the bird alights head
downward? How does it manage its feet
when in this position?
4. What is the general color of the nut-
hatch above and below? The color of the
top and sides of head? Color of back?
Wings? Tail? Throat? Breast?
5. Does the black cap come down to
68
ANIMALS
the eyes on the nuthatch as on the chicka-
dee? Has the nuthatch a black bib?
6. What is the shape of the beak of the
nuthatch? For what is it adapted? How
does it differ from the beak of the chicka-
dee?
7. What is the food of the nuthatch?
Where is it found? Does it open nuts for
the grubs or the nut meat? Observe the
way it strikes its beak into the suet; why
does it strike so hard?
8. How would you spell this bird's
note? Have you heard it give more than
one note?
9. How does the nuthatch benefit our
trees? At what season does it benefit them
most? Why?
10. Where do the nuthatches build
their nests? Why do we see the nut-
hatches oftener in winter than in sum-
mer?
Acadian chickadees
Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.
THE CHICKADEE
He Is the hero of the woods; there are courage and good nature enough in that
compact little body, which you may hide in your fist, to supply a whole groveful
of May songsters. He has the Spartan virtue of an eagle, the cheerfulness of a thrush,
the nimbleness of Code Sparrow, the endurance of the sea-birds condensed into his
tiny frame, and there have been added a pertness and ingenuity all his own. His curi-
osity is immense, and his audacity equal to it; I have even had one alight upon the
barrel of the gun over my shoulders as I sat quietly under his tree.
— ERNEST INGERSOLL
However careless we may be of our bird
friends when we are in the midst of the
luxurious life of summer, even the most
careless among us give pleased attention
to the birds that bravely endure with
us the rigors of winter. And when this
winged companion of winter proves to be
the most fascinating little ball of feathers
ever created, constantly overflowing with
cheerful song, our pleased attention
changes to active delight. Thus it is, that
in all the lands of snowy winters the
chickadee is a loved comrade of the coun-
try wayfarer; that happy song " chick-a-
dee-dee-dee " finds its way to the dullest
consciousness and the most callous heart.
The chickadees appear in small flocks
in the winter and often in company with
the nuthatches. The chickadees work on
the twigs and ends of branches, while the
nuthatches usually mine the bark of the
trunk and larger branches, the former
hunting insect eggs and the latter, insects
tucked away in winter quarters. When the
chickadee is prospecting for eggs, it first
looks the twig over from above and then
hangs head down and inspects it from be-
low; it is a thorough worker and doesn't in-
tend to overlook anything whatever; and
however busily it is hunting, it always finds
BIRDS
time for singing; whether on the wing or
perched upon a twig or hanging from it
like an acrobat, head down, it sends forth
its happy " chickadeedee " to assure us
that this world is all right and good
enough for anybody. Besides this song, it
begins in February to sing a most seductive
" fee-bee/7 giving a rising inflection to the
first syllable and a long, falling inflection
to the last, which makes it a very different
song from the short, jerky notes of the
flycatcher called phoebe, which cuts the
last syllable short and gives it a rising in-
flection. More than this, the chickadee
has some chatty conversational notes, and
now and then performs a bewitching little
yodel, which is a fit expression of its own
delicious personality.
The general effect of the colors of the
chickadee is grayish brown above and
grayish white below. The top of the head
is black, the sides white, and it has a se-
ductive little black bib under its chin.
The back is grayish, the wings and tail are
dark gray, the feathers having white mar-
gins. The breast is grayish white changing
to buff or brownish at the sides and below.
It is often called the " Black-capped Tit-
mouse/7 and it may always be distin-
S. A. Grimes
Black-capped chickadees. The friendly chick-
adee is easily tamed
A " banded '
Leonard K. Beyer
chickadee
guished by black cap and black bib. It is
smaller than the English sparrow; its beak
is a sharp little pick just fitted for taking
insect eggs off twigs and from under bark.
Insects are obliged to pass the winter in
some stage of their existence, and many of
them wisely remain in the egg until there
is something worth doing in the way of
eating. These eggs are glued fast to the
food trees by the mother insect and thus
provide abundant food for the chicka-
dees. It has been estimated that one
chickadee will destroy several hundred in-
sect eggs in one day, and it has been
proved that orchards frequented by these
birds are much more free from insect pests
than other orchards in the same locality.
They can be enticed into orchards by put-
ting up beef fat or bones and thus we
can secure their valuable service. In sum-
mer these birds attack caterpillars and
other insects.
When it comes to nest building, if the
chickadees cannot find a house to rent
they proceed to dig out a proper hole from
some decaying tree, which they line with
moss, feathers, fur, or some other soft ma-
terial. The nest is often not higher than
six to ten feet from the ground. One
which I studied was in a decaying fence
post. The eggs are white, sparsely speckled
and spotted with lilac or rufous. The
young birds are often eight in number.
How these fubsy birdlings manage to pack
themselves in such a small hole is a won-
der; it probably gives them good discipline
in bearing hardships cheerfully.
7o
ANIMALS
SUGGESTED READING — American Bird
Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Aiidubon
Bird Leaflet 61; Bird Stories, by Edith M.
Patch; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by
John Burroughs; Nature and Science
Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison
E. Howe, Book 2, Outdoor Visits; Win-
ter, by Dallas Lore Sharp; also, readings on
pages 28-29.
LESSON 14
THE CHICKADEE
LEADING THOUGHT — The chickadee is
as useful as it is delightful; it remains in
the North during winter, working hard
to clear our trees of insect eggs and sing-
ing cheerily all day. It is so friendly that
we can induce it to come even to the
window sill by putting out suet to show
our friendly interest.
METHOD — Put beef fat on the trees
near the schoolhouse in December and
replenish it about every two or three
weeks. The chickadees will come to the
feast and may be observed all winter. Give
the questions a few at a time and let the
children read in the bird books a record of
the benefits derived from this bird.
OBSERVATIONS — i . Where have you
seen the chickadees? What were they do-
ing? Were there several together?
2. What is the common song of the
chickadee? What other notes has it? Have
you heard it yodel? Have you heard it
sing " fee-bee, fee-bee "? How does this
song differ from that of the phcebe? Does
it sing on the wing or when at rest?
3. What is the color of the chickadee:
top and sides of head, back, wings, tail,
throat, breast, under parts?
4. Compare the size of the chickadee
with that of the English sparrow.
5. What is the shape of the chickadee's
bill and for what is it adapted? What is
the food in winter? Where does the bird
find it? How does it act when feeding and
hunting for food?
6. Does the chickadee usually alight on
the ends of the branches or on the larger
portions near the trunk of the tree?
7. How can you distinguish the chicka-
dees from their companions, the nut-
hatches?
8. Does the chickadee ever seem dis-
couraged by the snow and cold weather?
Do you know another name for the
chickadee?
9. Where does it build its nest? Of
what material? Have you ever watched
one of these nests? If so, tell about it.
10. How does the chickadee benefit our
orchards and shade trees? How can we
induce it to feel at home with us and work
for us?
THE DOWNY WOODPECKER
Friend Downy is the name this at-
tractive little neighbor has earned, be-
cause it is so friendly to those of us who
love trees. Watch it as it hunts each crack
and crevice of the bark of your favorite
apple or shade tree, seeking assiduously for
cocoons and insects hiding there, and you
will soon, of your own accord, call it
friend; you will soon love its black and
white uniform, which consists of a black
coat speckled and barred with white, and
whitish gray vest and trousers. The front
of the head is black and there is a black
streak extending backward from the eye
with a white streak above and also below
it. The male has a vivid red patch on the
back of the head, but his wife shows no
such giddiness; plain black and white are
good enough for her. In both sexes the
throat and breast are white, the middle
tail feathers black, while the side tail feath-
ers are white, barred with black at their
tips.
The downy has a way of alighting low
BIRDS
down on a tree trunk or at the base of a
larger branch and climbing upward in a
jerky fashion; it never runs about over the
tree nor does it turn around and go down
head Erst, like the nuthatch; if it wishes
to go down a short distance it accom-
plishes this by a few awkward, backward
hops; but when it really wishes to descend,
it flies off and down. The downy, like
other woodpeckers, has a special arrange-
ment of its physical machinery which en-
ables it to climb trees in its own manner.
It can grasp the bark on the side of a tree
more firmly because its fourth toe is
turned backward and works as a com-
panion with the thumb. Thus it is able
to clutch the bark as with a pair of nip-
pers, two claws in front and two claws be-
hind; and as another aid, the tail is ar-
ranged to prop the bird, like a bracket.
The tail is rounded in shape and the mid-
dle feathers have rather strong quills; but
the secret of the adhesion of the tail to
the bark lies in the great profusion of
barbs which, at the edge of the feathers,
offer bristling tips, and when applied to
the side of the tree act like a wire brush
with all the wires pushing downward.
This explains why the woodpecker can-
not go backward without lifting the tail.
But even more wonderful than this is
the mechanism by which the downy and
hairy woodpeckers get their food, which
consists largely of wood-borers or larvae
working under the bark. When the wood-
pecker wishes to get a grub in the wood,
it seizes the bark firmly with its feet, uses
its tail as a brace, throws its head and up-
per part of the body as far back as pos-
sible, and then drives a powerful blow
with its strong beak. The beak is adapted
for just this purpose, as it is wedge-shaped
at the end, and is used like a mason's drill
sometimes, and sometimes like a pick.
When the bird uses its beak as a pick, it
strikes hard, deliberate blows and the
chips fly; but when it is drilling, it strikes
rapidly and not so hard and quickly drills
a small, deep hole leading directly to the
burrow of the grub. When finally the grub
is reached, it would seem well-nigh impos-
sible to pull it out through a hole which is
Friend Downy
L. "W. Brownell
too small and deep to admit of the beak
being used as pincers. This is another story
and a very interesting one; the downy and
hairy can both extend their tongues far
beyond the point of the beak, and the tip
of the tongue is hard and horny and cov-
ered with short backward-slanting hooks
acting like a spear or harpoon; and thus
when the tongue is thrust into the grub it
pulls it out easily. The bones of the tongue
have a spring arrangement; when not in
Friend Downy's foot
use, the tongue lies soft in the mouth, like
a wrinkled earthworm, but when in use?
the bones spring out, stretching it to its
full length, and it is then slim and small.
The process is like fastening a pencil to the
tip of a glove finger; when drawn back the
finger is wrinkled together, but when
thrust out, it straightens. This spring ar-
rangement of the bones of the woodpeck-
er's tongue is a marvelous mechanism
and should be studied through pictures.
Since the food of the downy and the
ANIMALS
hairy is where they can get it all winter,
there is no need for them to go south;
thus they stay with us and work for us the
entire year. We should try to make them
feel at home with us in our orchards and
shade trees by putting up pieces of beef
fat, to convince them of their welcome.
No amount of free food will pauperize
these birds, for as soon as they have eaten
of the fat, they commence to hunt for
grubs on the tree and thus earn their feast.
They never injure live wood.
James Whitcomb Riley describes the
drumming of the woodpecker as " weed-
A. A. Allen
Part of the tree has been cut away to show
Downy's nest
ing out the lonesomeness " and that is ex-
actly what the drumming of the wood-
pecker means. The male selects some
dried limb of hard wood and there beats
out his well-known signal which adver-
tises far and near, " Wanted, a wife." And
after he wins her, he still drums on for a
time to cheer her while she is busy with
her family cares. The woodpecker has no
voice for singing, like the robin or thrush;
and luckily, he does not insist on singing,
like the peacock, whether he can or not.
He chooses rather to devote his voice to
terse and business-like conversation; and
when he is musically inclined, he turns
drummer. He is rather particular about his
instrument, and having found one that is
sufficiently resonant he returns to it day
after day. While it is ordinarily the male
that drums, I once observed a female
drumming. I told her that she was a bold
minx and ought to be ashamed of her-
self; but within twenty minutes she had
drummed up two red-capped suitors who
chased each other about with great ani-
mosity, so her performance was evidently
not considered improper in woodpecker
society. I have watched a rival pair of male
downies fight for hours at a time, but their
duel was of the French brand — much
fuss and no bloodshed. They advanced
upon each other with much haughty glar-
ing and many scornful bobs of the head,
but when they were sufficiently near to
stab each other they beat a mutual and
circumspect retreat. Although we hear the
male clownies drumming every spring, I
doubt if they are calling for new wives; I
believe they are, instead, calling the atten-
tion of their lawful spouses to the fact that
it is time for nest building to begin. I have
come to this conclusion because the
downies and hairies which I have watched
for years have always come in pairs to par-
take of suet during the entire winter; and
while only one at a time sits at meat and
the lord and master is somewhat bossy, yet
they seem to get along as well as most mar-
ried pairs.
The downy7 s nest is a hole, usually in a
partly decayed tree; an old apple tree is a
favorite site and a fresh excavation is made
each year. There are from four to six white
eggs, which are laid on a nice bed of chips
almost as fine as sawdust. The cloor to the
nest is a circle about an inch and a quarter
across.
The hairy woodpecker is fully one-third
larger than the downy, measuring nine
inches from tip of beak to tip of tail, while
the downy measures only about six inches.
The tail feathers at the side are white for
the entire length, while they are barred at
the tips in the downy. There is a black
" parting " through the middle of the red
patch on the back of the hairy 's head. The
two species are so much alike that it is
difficult for the beginner to tell them
apart. Their habits are very similar, except
BIRDS
that the hairy lives in the woods and is not trunk?
so commonly seen in orchards or on shade
trees. The food of the hairy is much like
that of the downy; it is, therefore, a
beneficial bird and should be protected.
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Leaflet 55; Bird Stories from Burroughs,
by John Burroughs; Mother Nature Series,
by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor Trox-
ell, Book 3, In Field and Forest; Nature
and Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch
and Harrison E. Howe, Book i, Hunting,
Book 2, Outdoor Visits; also, readings on
pages 28-29.
LESSON 15
THE DOWNY WOODPECKER
LEADING THOUGHT— The downy
woodpecker remains with us all winter,
feeding upon insects that are wintering in
crevices and beneath the bark of our trees.
It is fitted especially by shape of beak,
tongue, feet, and tail to get such food and
is a " friend in need " to our forest, shade,
and orchard trees.
METHOD — If a piece of beef fat be
fastened upon the trunk or branch of a
tree which can be seen from the school-
room windows, there will be no lack of in-
terest in this friendly little bird; for the
downy will sooner or later find this feast
spread for it and will come every day to
partake. Give out the questions, a few at a
time, and discuss the answers with the
pupils.
OBSERVATIONS — i . What is the gen-
eral color of the downy above and below?
The color of the top of the head? Sides of
the head? The throat and breast? The
color and markings of the wings? Color
and markings of the middle and side tail
feathers?
2. Do all downy woodpeckers have the
red patch at the back of the head?
3. What is the note of the downy?
Does it make any other sound? Have you
ever seen one drumming? At what time of
the year? On what did it drum? What did
it use for a drumstick? What do you sup-
pose was the purpose of this music?
4. How does the downy climb a tree
73
How does it descend? How
do its actions differ from those of the nut-
hatch?
5. How does the arrangement of the
woodpecker's toes help it in climbing a
tree trunk? How does this arrangement of
toes differ from that of other birds?
6. How does the downy use its tail to
assist it in climbing? What is the shape of
the tail and how is it adapted to assist?
7. What does the downy eat and where
does it find its food? Describe how it gets
at its food. What is the shape of its bill
and how is it fitted for getting the food?
Tell how the downy's tongue is used to
spear the grub.
8. Why do you think the downy does
not go south in winter?
9. Of what use is this bird to us? How
should we protect it and entice it into our
orchards?
10. Write an account of how the
downy builds its nest and rears its young.
A few seasons ago a downy woodpecker,
probably the individual one who is now
my winter neighbor, began to drum early
in March in a partly decayed apple-tree
that stands in the edge of a narrow strip of
woodland near me. When the morning
was still and mild I would often hear him
through my window before I was up, or b}
half-past six o'clock, and he would keep it
up pretty briskly till nine or ten o'clock, in
this respect resembling the grouse, which
do most of their drumming in the fore-
noon. His drum was the stub of a dry limb
about the size of one's wrist. The heart
was decayed and gone, but the outer shell
was loud and resonant. The bird would
keep his position there for an hour at a
time. Between his drummings he would
preen his plumage and listen as if for the
response of the female, or for the drum of
some rival. How swift his head would go
when he was delivering his blows upon the
limb/ His bealc wore the surface percep-
tibly. When he wished to change the key,
which was quite often, he would shift his
position an inch or two to a knot which
gave out a higher, shriller note. When I
climbed up to examine his drum he was
74 ANIMALS
much disturbed. I did not know he was in
the vicinity, but it seems he saw me from
a near tree, and came in haste to the neigh-
boring branches, and with spread plumage
and a sharp note demanded plainly
enough what my business was with his
drum. I was invading his privacy, dese-
crating his shrine, and the bird was much
put out. After some weeks the female ap-
peared; he had literally drummed up a
mate; his urgent and oft-repeated adver-
tisement was answered. Still the drum-
ming did not cease, but was quite as fer-
vent as before. If a mate could be won by
drumming she could be kept and enter-
tained by more drumming; courtship
should not end with marriage. If the bird
felt musical before, of course he felt much
more so now. Besides that, the gentle
deities needed propitiating in behalf of
the nest and young as well as in behalf of
the mate. After a time a second female
came, when there was war between the
two. I did not see them come to blows,
but I saw one female pursuing the other
about the place, and giving her no rest for
several days. She was evidently trying to
run her out of the neighborhood. Now
and then she, too, would drum briefly as
if sending a triumphant message to her
mate. — - " WINTER NEIGHBORS/' JOHN
BURROUGHS
THE SAPSUCKER
L. A. Fuertes
The yellow-bellied sapsucker
The sapsucker is a woodpecker that
has strayed from the paths of virtue; he
has fallen into temptation by the wayside,
and instead of drilling a hole for the sake
of the grub at the end of it, he drills for
drink. He is a tippler, and sap is his bev-
erage; and he is also fond of the soft, inner
bark. He often drills his holes in regular
rows and thus girdles a limb or a tree,
and for this is pronounced a rascal by men
who have themselves ruthlessly cut from
our land millions of trees that should now
be standing. It is amusing to see a sap-
sucker take his tipple, unless his saloon
happens to be one of our prized young
trees. He uses his bill as a pick and makes
the chips fly as he taps the tree; then he
goes away and taps another tree. After a
time he comes back and holding his beak
close to the hole for a long time seems to
be sucking up the sap; he then throws
back his head and " swigs " it down with
every sign of delirious enjoyment. The
avidity with which these birds come to the
bleeding wells which they have made, lias
in it all the fierceness of a toper crazy for
drink; they are particularly foncl of the
sap of the mountain ash, apple, thorn ap-
ple, canoe birch, cut-leaf birch, red maple,
red oak, white ash, and young pines. How-
ever, the sapsucker does not live solely on
sap; he also feeds upon insects whenever
he can find them. When feeding their
young, the sapsuckers are true flycatchers
snatching insects while on the wing. The
male has the crown and throat crimson,
edged with black with a black line extend-
BIRDS
75
ing back of the eye, bordered with white tree? If there are two rows or more, are the
above and below. There is a large, black holes set evenly one below another?
circular patch on the breast which is bor- ~ "
dered at the sides and below with lemon
yellow. The female is similar to the male
and has a red forehead, but she has a
white bib instead of a red one beneath the
chin. The distinguishing marks of the sap-
sucker should be learned by the pupils.
The red is on the front of the head instead
of on the crown, as is the case with the
2. Do the holes sink into the wood, or
are they simply through the bark? Why
does it injure or kill a tree to be girdled
with these holes? Have you ever seen the
sapsuckers making these'holes? If so, how
did they act?
3. How many kinds of trees can you
find punctured by these holes? Are they
likely to be young trees?
downy and hairy; when the bird is flying 4. How can you distinguish the sap-
the broad, white stripes extending from sucker from the other woodpeckers? How
the shoulders backward, form a long, oval have the hairy and downy which are such
figure, which is very characteristic.
The sapsuckers spend the winter in the
southern states where they drill wells in
the white oak and other trees. From Vir-
ginia to northern New York and New
England, where they breed, they are seen
only during migration, which occurs in
April; then the birds appear two and three
together and are very bold in attacking
shade trees, especially the white birch.
They nest only in the northern United
States and northward. The nest is usually In the following winter the same bird
a hole in a tree about forty feet from the (a sapsuclcer) tapped a maple-tree in front
ground, and is likely to be in a dead birch, of my window in fifty-six places; and,
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird when the day was sunny and the sap oozed
Leaflet 102; also, readings on pages 28-29. out he spent most of his time there. He
knew the good sap-days, and was on hand
promptly for his tipple; cold and cloudy
days he did not appear. He knew which
side of the tree to tap, too, and avoided
the sunless northern exposure. When one
series of well-holes failed to supply him,
he would sink another, drilling through
the barfc with great ease and quickness.
Then, when the day was warm, and the
sap ran freely, he would have a regular
sugar-maple debauch, sitting there by his
wells hour after hour, and as fast as they
became filled sipping out the sap. This he
good friends of the trees been made to suf-
fer for the sapsucker's sins?
5. What is the color of the sapsucker:
forehead, sides of head, back, wings,
throat, upper and lower breast? What is
the difference in color between the male
and female?
6. In what part of the country do the
sapsuckers build their nests? Where do
they make their nests and how?
LESSON 16
THE SAPSUCKER
LEADING THOUGHT — The sapsucker
has a red cap, a red bib, and a yellow
breast; it is our only woodpecker that does
injury to trees. We should learn to distin-
guish it from the downy and hairy, as the
latter are among the best bird friends of
the trees.
METHOD — Let the observations begin
with the study of the trees (common al-
most everywhere) which have been at-
tacked by the sapsucker, and thus lead
to an interest in the culprit.
OBSERVATIONS — i . Have you seen the
work of the sapsucker? Are the holes
drilled in rows completely around the
did in a gentle, caressing manner that was
very suggestive. He made a row of wells
near the foot of the tree, and other rows
higher up, and he would hop up and down
the trunk as they became filled. — " WIN-
TER NEIGHBORS/' JOHN BURROUGHS
76
ANIMALS
THE REDHEADED WOODPECKER
The redhead is well named, for his hel-
met and visor show a vivid glowing crim-
son that stirs the sensibilities of the color
lover. It is readily distinguished from the
other woodpeckers because its entire head
and bib are red. For the rest, it is a beauti-
ful dark metallic blue with the lower back,
a band across the wing, and the under parts
white; its outer tail feathers are tipped
with white. The female is colored like the
L. A. Fuertes
The redheaded woodpecker
male, but the young have the head and
breast gray, streaked with black and white,
and the wings barred with black. It may
make its nest by excavating a hole in a tree
or a stump or even in a telegraph pole; the
eggs are glossy white. This woodpecker is
quite different in habits from the hairy
and downy, as it likes to flit along from
stump to fence post and catch insects on
the wing, like a flycatcher. The only time
that it pecks wood is when it is making a
hole for its nest.
As a drummer, the redhead is most
adept and his roll is a long one. He is an
adaptable fellow, and if there is no reso-
nant dead limb at hand, he has been
known to drum on tin roofs and lightning
rods; and once we also observed him exe-
cuting a most brilliant solo on the wire
of a barbed fence. He is especially fond of
beechnuts and acorns, and being a thrifty
fellow as well as musical, in time of plenty
he stores up food against time of need. He
places his nuts in crevices and forks of the
branches or in holes in trees or any other
hiding place. He can shell a beechnut
quite as cleverly as can the deer mouse;
and he is own cousin to the carpenter
woodpecker of the Pacific Coast, which
is also redheaded and which drills holes
in the oak trees wherein he drives acorns
like pegs for later use.
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Leaflet 43; Mother Nature Series, by Fan-
nie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell, Book
3, In Field and Forest; Nature and Science
Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison
E. Howe, Book i, Hunting; also, readings
on pages 28-29.
LESSON 17
THE REDHEADED WOODPECKER
LEADING THOUGHT — The redheaded
woodpecker has very different habits from
the downy and is not so useful to us. It
lives upon nuts and fruit and such insects
as it can catch upon the wing.
METHOD — If there is a redhead in the
vicinity of your school the children will be
sure to see it. Write the following ques-
tions upon the blackboard and offer a
prize to the first one who will make a note
on where the redhead stores his winter
food.
OBSERVATIONS— - 1. Can you tell the
redhead from the other woodpeckers?
What colors especially mark his plum-
age?
2. Where does the redhead nest? De-
scribe eggs and nest.
BIRDS
3. What have you observed the red-
head eating? Have you noticed it storing
nuts and acorns for the winter? Have you
noticed it flying off with cherries or other
fruit?
4. What is the note of the redhead?
Have you ever seen one drumming?
What did he use for a drum? Did he come
back often to this place to make his music?
77
Another trait our woodpeckers have
that endears them to me, and that has
never been pointedly noticed by our orni-
thologists, is their habit of drumming in
the spring. They are songless birds, and yet
all are musicians; they make the dry limbs
eloquent of the coming change. Did you
think that loud, sonorous hammering
which proceeded from the orchard or
from the near woods on that still March or
April morning was only some bird getting
its breakfast? It is downy, but he is not rap-
ping at the door of a grub; he is rapping at
the door of spring, and the dry limb thrills
beneath the ardor of his blows. Or7 later in
the season, in the dense forest or by some
remote mountain lake, does that meas-
ured rhythmic beat that breaks upon the
silence, first three strokes following each
other rapidly, succeeded by two louder
ones with longer intervals between them,
and that has an effect upon the alert ear
as if the solitude itself had at last found a
voice — does that suggest anything less
than a deliberate musical performance? In
fact, our woodpeckers are /ust as charac-
teristically drummers as is the ruffed
grouse, and they have their particular
limbs and stubs to which they resort for
that purpose. Their need of expression is
apparently just as great as that of the song-
birds, and it is not surprising that they
should have found out that there is music
in a dry, seasoned limb which can be
evoked beneath their beaks.
The woodpeckers do not each have a
particular dry limb to which they resort at
all times to drum, like the one I have de-
scribed. The woods are fall of suitable
branches, and they drum more or less here
and there as they are in quest of food; yet I
am convinced each one has its favorite
spot, like the grouse, to which it resorts, es-
pecially in the morning. The sugar-maker
in the maple woods may notice that this
sound proceeds from the same tree or trees
about his camp with great regularity. A
woodpecker in my vicinity has drummed
for two seasons on a telegraph-pole? and
he makes the wires and glass insulators
ring. Another drums on a thin board on
the end of a long grape-arbor, and on still'
mornings can be heard a long distance.
A friend of mine in a Southern city tells
me of a redheaded woodpecker that
drums upon a lightning-rod on his neigh-
bor's house. Nearly every clear, still morn-
ing at certain seasons, he says, this musical
rapping may be heard. " He alternates his
tapping with his stridulous call, and the
effect on a cool, autumn-like morning is
very pleasing." — " BIRDS, BEES AND SHARP
EYES/' JOHN BURROUGHS
THE FLICKER OR YELLOW-HAMMER
The first time I ever saw a flicker I said,
" What a wonderful meadowlark and
what is it doing on that ant hill? " But an-
other glance revealed to me a red spot on
the back of the bird's neck, and as soon
as I was sure that it was not a bloody gash,
I knew that it marked no meadowlark.
The top of the flicker's head and its back
are slaty-gray, which is much enlivened by
a bright red band across the nape of the
neck. The tail is black above and yellow
tipped with black below; the wings are
black, but have a beautiful luminous yel-
low beneath, which is very noticeable dur-
ing flight. There is a locket adorning the
breast; it is a thin, black crescent, much
narrower than that of the meadowlark.
Below the locket, the breast is yellowish
white thickly marked with circular, black
spots. The throat and sides of the head
ANIMALS
Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.
A brood of seven young flickers
are pinkish brown, and the male has a
black mustache extending backward from
the beak with a very fashionable droop.
Naturally enough the female, although
she resembles her spouse, lacks his mus-
tache. The beak is long, strong, somewhat
curved and dark colored. This bird is dis-
tinctly larger than the robin. The white
patch on the rump shows little or not at
all when the bird is at rest. This white
mark is known as a " color call " — for it
has been said that it serves as a rear signal
by means of which the flock of migrating
birds are able to keep together in the
night. The yellow-hammer's flight is wave-
like and jerky — quite different from that
of the meadowlark; it does not stay so
constantly in the meadows, but often fre-
quents woods and orchards.
The flicker has many names, such as
golden-winged woodpecker, yellow-ham-
mer, highhole, yarup, wake-up, clape, and
many others. It earned the name of high-
hole because of its habit of excavating its
nest high up in trees, usually between ten
and twenty-five feet from the ground. It
especially loves an old apple tree as a site
for a nest, and most of our large old or-
chards can boast of a pair of these hand-
some birds during the nesting season of
May and June. The flicker is not above
renting any house he finds vacant, exca-
vated by some other birds last year. He
earned his name of yarup or wake-up from
his spring song, which is a rollicking, jolly
" wick-a, wick-a, wick-a-wick " — a song
commonly heard the last of March or early
April. The chief insect food of the flicker
is ants, although it also eats beetles, flies,
and wild fruit; it does little or no damage
to planted crops. Its tongue has become
modified, like that of the anteater; it is
long and is covered with a sticky sub-
stance; and when it is thrust into an ant
hill, all of the little citizens, disturbed in
their communal labors, at once bravely
attack the intruder and become glued fast
to it; they are thus withdrawn and trans-
ferred to the capacious stomach of the
bird. It has been known to eat three thou-
sand ants at a single meal.
Those who have observed the flicker
during the courting season declare him
to be the most silly and vain of all bird
wooers. Mr. Baskett says: "When he
wishes to charm his sweetheart he mounts
a small twig near her, and lifts his wings,
spreads his tail, and begins to nod right
and left as he exhibits his mustache to his
charmer. He sets his jet locket first on one
side of the twig and then on the other.
He may even go so far as to turn his head
half around to show her the pretty spot
A. A. Allen
The male 'flicker has a black mustache
BIRDS
on his back hair. In doing all this he per-
forms the most ludicrous antics and has
the silliest expression of face and voice as
if in losing his heart, as some one phrases
it, he had lost his head also."
The nest hole is quite deep and the
white eggs are from four to ten in num-
ber. The feeding of the young flickers is a
process painful to watch. The parent takes
the food into its own stomach and par-
tially digests it, then thrusts its own bill
down the throat of the young one and
pumps the soft food into it "kerchug,
kerchug," until it seems as if the
young one must be shaken to its foun-
dations. The young flickers as soon as
they leave the nest climb around freely
on the home tree in a delightful, playful
manner.
SUGGESTED READING — American Bird
Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon
Bird Leaflet 5; Bird Stories from Bur-
roughs, by John Burroughs; First Lessons
in Nature Study, by Edith M. Patch; Na-
ture and Science Readers, by Edith M.
Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book 5,
Science at Home; also, readings on pages
28-29.
Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.
The female flicker
Stanley Mythaler
The homes of flickers
LESSON 18
THE FLICKER
LEADING THOUGHT — The flicker is a
true woodpecker but has changed its hab-
its and spends much of its time in mead-
ows hunting for ants and other insects;
it makes its nest in trunks of trees, like
its relatives. It can be distinguished from
the meadowlark by the white patch above
the tail which shows during flight.
METHOD — This is one of the most im-
portant of the birds of the meadow. The
work may be done in September, when
there are plenty of young flickers which
have not learned to be wary. The observa-
tions may be made in the field, a few ques-
tions being given at a time.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Where do you
find the flicker in the summer and early
autumn? How can you tell it from the
meadowlark in color and in flight?
2. What is it doing in the meadows?
How does it manage to trap ants?
3. What is the size of the flicker as com-
pared to the robin? What is its general
color as compared to the meadowlark?
4. Describe the colors of the flicker as
follows: top and sides of the head, back
of the neck, lower back, tail, wings, throat,
and breast. Describe the color and shape of
the beak. Is there a difference in markings
between the males and females?
8o
ANIMALS
5. Does the patch of white above the
tail show, except when the bird is flying?
Of what use is this to the bird?
6. What is the flicker's note? At what
time of spring do you hear it first?
7. Where does the flicker build its nest
and how? What is the color of the eggs?
How many are there?
8. How does it feed its young? How do
the young flickers act?
9. How many names do you know for
the flicker?
The high-hole appears to drum more
promiscuously than does the downy. He
utters his long, loud spring call, whick-
whick-whick, and then begins to rap with
his beak upon his perch before the last
note has reached your ear. I have seen him
drum sitting upon the ridge of the barn.
The log-code, or pileated woodpecker, the
largest and wildest of our Northern spe-
cies, I have never heard drum. His blows
should wake the echoes.
When the woodpecker is searching for
food, or laying siege to some hidden grub,
the sound of his hammering is dead or
muffled, and is heard but a few yards. It is
only upon dry, seasoned timber, freed of
its bark, that he beats his reveille to spring
and woos his mate. — " BIRDS, BEES AND
SHARP EYES," JOHN BURROUGHS
THE MEADOWLARK
The meadowlark
L. A. Fuertes
The first intimation we have in early
spring that the meadowlark is again with
us comes to us through his soft, sweet,
sad note which Van Dyke describes so
graphically when he says it " leaks slowly
upward from the ground." One wonders
how a bird can express happiness in these
melancholy, sweet, slurred notes, and yet
undoubtedly it is a song expressing joy,
the joy of returning home, the happiness
of love and of nest building.
The meadowlark, as is indicated by its
name, is a bird of the meadow. It is often
confused with another bird of the meadow
which has very different habits, the flicker.
The two are approximately of the same
size and color and each has a black cres-
cent or locket on the breast and each
shows the " white feather " during flight.
The latter is the chief distinguishing char-
acteristic; the outer tail feathers of the
meadowlark are white, while the tail feath-
ers of the flicker are not white at all, but it
has a single patch of white on the rump.
The flight of the two is quite different.
The lark lifts itself by several sharp move-
ments and then soars smoothly over the
course, while the flicker makes a continu-
ous up-and-down, wavelike flight. The
songs of the two would surely never be
confused, for the meadowlark is among
our sweetest singers, to which class the
flicker with his " flick-a-flick " hardly be-
longs.
The colors of the meadowlark are most
harmonious shades of brown and yellow,
well set off by the black locket on its
breast. Its wings are light brown, each
feather being streaked with black and
brown; the line above the eye is yellow,
bordered with black above and below; a
BIRDS
81
buff line extends from the beak backward
over the crown. The wings are light brown
and have a mere suggestion of white bars;
portions of the outer feathers on each side
of the tail are white, but this white does
not show except during flight. The sides
of the throat are greenish, the middle part
and breast are lemon-yellow, with the
large, black crescent just below the throat.
The beak is long, strong, and black, and
the meadowlark is decidedly a low-browed
bird, the forehead being only slightly
higher than the upper part of the beak. It
is a little larger than the robin, which it
rivals in plumpness.
The meadowlark has a particular liking
for meadows which border streams. It
sings when on the ground, on the bush
or fence and while on the wing; and it
sings during the entire period of its north-
ern stay, from April to November, ex-
cept while it is moulting in late summer,
Mr. Mathews, who is an eminent author-
ity on bird songs, says that the meadow-
larks of New York have a different song
from those of Vermont or Nantucket, al-
though the music has always the same
general characteristics. The western spe-
cies has a longer and more complex song
than ours of the East. It is one of the few
California birds that is a genuine joy to
the eastern visitor; during February and
March its heavenly music is as pervasive
as the California sunshine.
The meadowlark's arched nest
R. W. Hegner
A father prairie horned lark at his nest.
These birds nest in early March, and often
snow falls on the nest and brooding bird
The nest is built in a depression in the
ground near a tuft of grass; it is con-
structed of coarse grass and sticks and is
lined with finer grass; there is usually a
dome of grass blades woven above the
nest; and often a long, covered vestibule
leading to the nest is made in a similar
fashion. This is evidently for protection
from the keen eyes of hawks and crows.
The eggs are laid about the last of May
and are usually from five to seven in num-
ber; they are white, speckled with brown
and purple. The young meadowlarks are
usually large enough to be out of the way
before haying time in July.
The food of the meadowlark during the
entire year consists almost exclusively of
insects which destroy the grass of our
meadows. It eats great quantities of grass-
hoppers, cutworms, chinch bugs, army
worms, wireworms, and weevils, and also
destroys some weed seeds. Each pupil
should make a diagram in his notebook
showing the proportions of the meadow-
lark's different kinds of food. This may be
copied from Audubon Leaflet 3. Everyone
should use his influence to the uttermost
to protect this valuable bird. It has been
estimated that the meadowlarks save to
every township where hay is produced,
twenty-five dollars each year on this crop
alone.
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Leaflets 3 and 111; Holiday Meadow, by
Edith M. Patch; also, readings on pages
28-29.
82
ANIMALS
LESSON 19
THE MEADOWLARK
LEADING THOUGHT — The meadowlark
is of great value in delivering the grass of
our meadows from insect destroyers. It has
a song which we all know; it can be iden-
tified by color as a large, light brown bird
with white feathers on each side of the
tail, and in flight by its quick up-and-
down movements finishing with long, low,
smooth sailing.
METHOD — September and October are
good months for observations on the
flight, song, and appearance of the mead-
owlark, and also for learning how to dis-
tinguish it from the flicker. The notes
must be made by the pupils in the field,
and after they know the bird and its song
let them, if they have opportunity, study
the bird books and bulletins, and prepare
written accounts of the way the meadow-
lark builds its nest and of its economic
value.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Where have you
seen the meadowlark? Did you ever see it
in the woods? Describe its flight. How can
you identify it by color when it is flying?
How do its white patches and its flight dif-
fer from those of the flicker?
2. Try to imitate the meadowlarFs
notes by song or whistle. Does it sing
while on the ground, or on a bush or fence,
or during flight?
3. Note the day when you hear its last
song in the fall and also its first song in the
spring. Does it sing during August and
September? Why? Where does it spend
the winter? On what does it feed while in
the South?
4. Is the meadowlark larger or smaller
than the robin? Describe from your own
observations, as far as possible, the colors
of the meadowlark as follows: top of head,
line above the eye, back, wings, tail,
throat, breast, locket, color and shape of
beak. Make a sketch of your own or a
copy from Louis Fuertes7 excellent picture
of the meadowlark in the Audubon Leaf-
let, and color it accurately.
5. When is the nest built; where is it
placed; of what material is it built? How is
it protected from sight from above? Why
this protection? How many eggs are there
in the nest? What are their colors and
markings?
6. What is the food of the meadow-
lark? Copy the diagram from the Audu-
bon Leaflet, showing the proportions of
the different kinds of insects which it de-
stroys.
Sweet, sweet, sweet/ O happy that I am!
(Listen to the meadow-larks, across the
fields that sing/)
Sweet, sweet, sweet/ O subtle breath of
balm,
O winds that blow, O buds that grow,
O rapture of the spring/
Sweet, sweet, sweet/ O happy world that
is/ '
Dear heart, I hear across the fields my
mateling pipe and call
Sweet, sweet, sweet/ O world so full of
bliss,
For life is love, the world is love, and
love is overall/
— INA COOLBRITH
BIRDS
English sparrows at a feeding station
S. A. Grimes
THE ENGLISH SPARROW
So dainty in plumage and hue,
A study in grey and in brown?
How little, how little we knew
The pest he would prove to the town/
From dawn until daylight grows dim.
Perpetual chatter and scold.
No winter migration for him,
Not even afraid of the cold/
Scarce a song-bird he fails to molest,
Belligerent, meddlesome thing/
Wherever he goes as a guest
He is sure to remain as a King.
— MARY ISABELLA FORSYTH
The English sparrow, like the poor and
the housefly, is always with us; and since
he is here to stay, let us make him useful
if we can devise any means of doing so.
There is no bird that gives the pupils a
more difficult exercise in describing colors
and markings than does he; and his wife
is almost equally difficult. I have known
fairly skilled ornithologists to be misled
by some variation in color of the hen spar-
row, and it is safe to assert that the ma-
jority of people " do not know her from
Adam/' The male has the top of the head
gray with a patch of reddish brown on
either side; the middle of the throat and
upper breast is black; the sides of the
throat white; the lower breast and under
parts grayish white; the back is brown
streaked with black; the tail is brown,
rather short, and not notched at the tip;
the wings are brown with two white bars
and a jaunty dash of reddish brown. The
female has the head grayish brown, the
breast, throat, and under parts grayish
white; the back is brown streaked with
black and dirty yellow, and she is, on the
whole, a " washed out " looking lady bird.
The differences in color and size between
the English sparrow and the chippy are
quite noticeable, as the chippy is an inch
84 ANIMALS
shorter and far more slender in appear-
ance, and is especially marked by the red-
dish brown crown.
When feeding, the English sparrows
are aggressive, and their lack of table man-
ners make them the " goops " among all
birds; in the winter they settle in noisy
flocks on the street to pick up the grain
undigested by the horses, or in barnyards
where the grain has been scattered by the
farm animals. They only eat weed seeds
when other food fails them in the winter,
for they are civilized birds even if they do
not act so, and they much prefer the culti-
vated grains. It is only during the nesting
season that they destroy insects to any
extent; over one-half the food of nestlings
is insects, such as weevils, grasshoppers,
cutworms, etc.; but this good work is
largely offset by the fact that these same
nestlings will soon give their grown-up
energies to attacking grain fields, taking
the seed after sowing, later the new grain
in the milk, and later still the ripened
grain in the sheaf. Wheat, oats, rye, bar-
ley, corn, sorghum, and rice are thus at-
tacked. Once I saw on the upper Nile a
native boat loaded with millet which was
attacked by thousands of sparrows; when
driven off by the sailors they would perch
on the rigging like flies, and as soon as the
men turned their backs they would drop
like bullets to the deck and gobble the
grain before they were again driven off.
English sparrows also destroy for us the
buds and blossoms of fruit trees and often
attack the ripening fruit.
The introduction of the English spar-
row into America is one of the greatest ar-
guments possible in favor of nature-study;
for ignorance of nature-study methods in
this single instance costs the United
States millions of dollars every year. The
English sparrow is the European house
sparrow, and people had a theory that it
was an insect eater, but never took the
pains to ascertain if this theory were a fact.
About 1850, some people with more zeal
than wisdom introduced these birds into
New York, and for twenty years after-
wards there were other importations of
the sparrows. In twenty years more, peo-
ple discovered that they had taken great
pains to establish in our country one of the
worst nuisances in all Europe. In addition
to all the direct damage which the English
sparrows do, they are so quarrelsome that
they have driven away many of our native
beneficial birds from our premises, and
now vociferously acclaim their presence in
places which were once the haunts of birds
with sweet songs. After they drive off the
other birds they quarrel among them-
selves, and there is no rest for tired ears in
their vicinity. There are various noises
made by these birds which we can under-
stand if we are willing to take the pains:
the harassing chirping is their song; they
squall when frightened and peep plain-
tively when lonesome, and make a dis-
agreeable racket when fighting.
But to "give the devil his due" we
must admit that the house sparrow is as
clever as it is obnoxious, and its success is
doubtless partly due to its superior clever-
ness and keenness. It is quick to take a
hint, if sufficiently pointed; firing a shot-
gun twice into a flock of these birds has
driven them from our premises; and tear-
ing down their nests assiduously for a
month seems to convey to them the idea
that they are not welcome. Another in-
stance of their cleverness I witnessed one
day: I was watching a robin, worn and
nervous with her second brood, fervently
hunting earthworms in the lawn to fill the
gaping mouths in the nest in the Virginia
creeper shading the piazza. She finally
pulled up a large, pink worm, and a hen
sparrow flew at her viciously; the robin
dropped the worm to protect herself, and
the sparrow snatched it and carried it off
triumphantly to the grape arbor where
she had a nest of her own full of gaping
mouths. She soon carne back, and at a
safe distance watched the robin pull out
another worm, and by the same tactics
again gained the squirming prize. Three
times was this repeated in an hour, and
then the robin, discouraged, flew up into
a Norway spruce and in a monologue of
sullen duckings tried to reason out what
had happened.
The English sparrow's nest is quite in
BIRDS
keeping with the bird's other qualities; it
is usually built in a hole or box or in some
protected corner beneath the eaves; it is
also often built in vines on buildings and
occasionally in trees. It is a good example
of " fuss and feathers "; coarse straw, or
any other kind of material, and feathers of
hens or of other birds, mixed together
without fashion or form, constitute the
nest. In these sprawling nests the whitish,
brown or gray-flecked eggs are laid and
the young reared; several broods are reared
by one pair in a season. The nesting begins
almost as soon as the snow is off the
ground and lasts until late fall.
During the winter, the sparrows gather
in flocks in villages and cities, but in the
spring they scatter out through the coun-
try where they can find more grain. The
only place where this bird is welcome is
possibly in the heart of a great city, where
no other bird could pick up a livelihood.
It is a true cosmopolite and is the first bird
to greet the traveler in Europe or northern
Africa. These sparrows will not build in
boxes suspended by a wire; and they do
not like a box where there is no resting
place in front of the door leading to the
nest.
SUGGESTED READING — American Bird
Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon
Bird Leaflet 90; Bird Friends, by Gilbert
H. Trafton; English Sparrow Control
(U. S. Department of Agriculture, Leaflet
61); Lives of the Hunted, by Ernest
Thompson Seton (A Street Troubadour);
Mother Nature Series, by Fannie W.
Dunn and Eleanor Troxell, Book 3, In
Field and Forest; see also readings on
pages 28-29.
LESSON 20
THE ENGLISH SPARROW
LEADING THOUGHT — The English spar-
row was introduced into America by peo-
ple who knew nothing of its habits. It has
finally overrun our whole country, and to
a great extent has driven out from towns
and villages our useful American song
birds; it should be discouraged and not
allowed to nest around our houses and
A. A. Allen
The sprawling nest of the English sparrow
grounds. As a sparrow it has interesting
habits which we should observe.
METHOD — Let the pupils make their
observations in the street or wherever they
find the birds. The greatest value of this
lesson is to teach the pupils to observe the
coloring and markings of a bird accurately
and describe them clearly. This is the best
of training for later work with the wild
birds.
OBSERVATIONS — i. How many kinds of
birds do you find in a flock of English spar-
rows?
2. The ones with the black cravat are
naturally the men of the family, while
their sisters, wives, and mothers are less
ornamented. Describe in your notebook
or from memory the colors of the cock
sparrow as follows: top of head, sides of
the head, the back, the tail, the wings,
wing bars, throat and upper breast, lower
breast and under parts.
3 . Describe the hen sparrow in the same
manner and note the difference in mark-
ings between the two. Are the young birds,
when they first fly, like the father or the
mother?
4. Compare the English sparrow with
the chippy and describe the differences
in size and color.
5. Is the tail when the bird is not flying
square across the end or notched?
86
ANIMALS
6. What is the shape of the beak? For
what sort of food is it adapted?
7. What is the food of the English
sparrows and where do they find it? De-
scribe the actions of a flock feeding in the
yard or street. Are the English sparrows
kindly or quarrelsome in disposition?
8. Why do the English sparrows stay
in the North during the coldest of win-
ters? Do they winter out in the country or
in villages?
9. Describe by observation how they
try to drive away robins or other native
birds.
10. Describe the nest of this sparrow.
Of what material is it made? How is it sup-
ported? How sheltered? Is it a well-built
nest?
11. Describe the eggs. How many
broods are raised a year? What kind of
food do the parents generally give the
nestlings?
12. If you have ever seen these sparrows
do anything interesting, describe the cir-
cumstance.
13. In what ways are these birds a nui-
sance to us?
14. How much of English sparrow talk
do you understand?
15. How can we build bird-boxes so
that the English sparrows will not try to
take possession of them?
Do not tire the child with questions;
lead him to question you, instead. Be sure,
in any case, that he is more interested in
the subject than in the questions about
the subject.
THE CHIPPING SPARROW
Leonard K. Beyer
A chipping sparrow on its nest ,
This midget lives in our midst, and yet
among all bird kind there is not another
which so ignores us as does the chippy.
It builds its nest about our houses, it
hunts for food all over our premises, it
sings like a tuneful grasshopper in our
ears, it brings up its young to disregard
us, and every hour of the day it " tsip-
tsips " us to scorn. And, although it has
well earned the name of " doorstep spar-
row/' since it frugally gathers the crumbs
about our kitchen doors, yet it rarely be-
comes tame or can be induced to eat
from the hand, unless it is trained so to
do as a nestling.
Its cinnamon-brown cap and tiny black
forehead, the gray streak over the eye and
the black through it, the gray cheeks and
the pale gray, unspotted breast distinguish
it from the other sparrows, although its
brown back streaked with darker coloi,
and brown wings and blackish tail, have a
very sparrowish look; the two whitish wing
bars are not striking; it has a bill fitted for
shelling seeds, a characteristic of all the
sparrows. Despite its seed-eating bill, the
chippy's food is about one-third insects,
and everyone should know that this little
bird does good to our gardens and trees.
It takes in large numbers cabbage cater-
pillars, pea lice, the beet leaf-miners, leaf
hoppers, grasshoppers, and cutworms, and
does its share in annihilating the cater-
pillars of the terrible gypsy and browntail
moths. In fact, it works for our benefit
even in its vegetable food, as this consists
BIRDS
87
largely of the seeds of weeds and unde-
sirable grasses. It will often fly up from
its perch after flies or moths/ like a fly-
catcher; and the next time we note it, it
will be hopping around hunting for the
crumbs we have scattered for it on the
porch floor. The song of the chippy is
more interesting to it than to us; it is a
continuous performance of high? shrill,
rapid notes, all alike so far as I can detect;
when it utters many of these in rapid suc-
cession it is singing, but when it gives
them singly they are call notes or mere
conversation.
One peculiarity of the nest has given
this sparrow the common name of hair-
bird, for the lining is almost always of
long, coarse hair, usually treasure trove
from the tails of horses or cattle, switched
off against boards, burs, or other obstacles.
Of the many nests I have examined, black
horsehair was the usual lining; but two
nests in our yard show the chippy to be
a resourceful bird; evidently the hair mar-
ket was exhausted and the soft, dead
needles of the white pine were used in-
stead and made a most satisfactory lining.
The nest is tiny and shallow; the outside
is of fine grass or rootlets carefully but
not closely woven together; it is placed
A. A. Allen
A cowbird laid the large egg in Ihis chip-
ping sparrow's nest. The cowbird depends
upon other birds to brood its eggs and care
for its young
A. A. Allen
" The breadline!' Young chipping sparrows
being fed by one of their parents
in vine or tree, usually not more than
ten or fifteen feet from the ground; a
vine on a house is a favorite nesting site.
Once a bold pair built directly above the
entrance to our front door and mingled
cheerfully with other visitors. Usually,
however, the nest is so hidden that it
is not discovered until after the leaves
have fallen. The eggs are light blue tinged
with green, with fine, purplish brown
specks or markings scrawled about the
larger end.
The chippy comes to us in early spring
and usually raises two broods of from
three to five " piggish " youngsters, which
even after they are fully grown follow
pertinaciously their tired and " frazzled
out " parents and beg to be fed; the chippy
parents evidently have no idea of disci-
pline but indulge their teasing progeny
until our patience, at least, is exhausted.
The young differ from the parents in hav-
ing streaked breasts and lacking the red-
dish crown. In the fall the chippy par-
ents lose their red-brown caps and have
streaked ones instead; and then they fare
forth in flocks for a seed-harvest in the
fields. Thereafter our chippy is a stranger
to us; we do not know it in its new garb,
and it dodges into the bushes as we pass,
as if it had not tested our harmlessness on
our own door-stone.
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Leaflet 80; Bird-House to Let, by Mary F.
Terrel; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by
John Burroughs; Mother Nature Series,
by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor Trox-
ANIMALS
ell, Book 3, In Field and Forest; also, read-
ings on pages 28-29.
LESSON 21
THE CHIPPING SPARROW
LEADING THOUGHT — The chipping
sparrow is a cheerful and useful little
neighbor. It builds a nest, lined with
horsehair, in the shrubbery and vines
about our homes and works hard in rid-
ding our gardens of insect pests and seeds
of weeds.
METHOD — Begin this lesson with a
nest of the chippy, which is so unmistak-
able that it may be collected and identi-
fied in the winter. Make the study of this
nest so interesting that the pupils will
wait anxiously to watch for the birds
which made it. As soon as the chippies
appear, the questions should be asked, a
few at a time, giving the children several
weeks for the study.
THE NEST
OBSERVATIONS — i . Where was this
nest found? How high from the ground?
2. Was it under shelter? How was it
supported?
3. Of what material is the outside of
the nest? How is it fastened together?
How do you suppose the bird wove this
material together?
4. Of what material is the lining? Why
is the bird that built this nest called the
" hair-bird "? From what animal do you
think the lining of the nest came? How do
you suppose the bird got it?
5. Do you think the nest was well hid-
den when the leaves were about it? Meas-
ure the nest across and also its depth; do
you think the bird that made it is as large
as the English sparrow?
THE BIRD
6. How can you tell the chippy from
the English sparrow?
7. Describe the colors of the chippy as
follows: beak, forehead, crown, marks
above and through the eyes, cheeks,
throat, breast, wings, and tail. Note if the
wings have whitish bars and how many.
8. Describe the shape of the beak as
compared with that of the robin. What
is this shaped bill adapted for?
9. What is the food of the chippy?
Why has it been called the doorstep
sparrow?
10. Note whether the chippy catches
flies or moths on the wing like the phcebe.
1 1 . Why should we protect the chippy
and try to induce it to live near our
gardens?
12. Does it run or hop when seeking
food on the ground?
13. How early in the season does the
chippy appear and where does it spend
the winter?
14. Can you describe the chippy's
song? How do you think it won the name
of chipping sparrow?
15. If you have the luck to find a pair
of chippies nesting, keep a diary of your
observations in your notebook covering
the following points: Do both parents
build the nest? Flow is the framework
laid? How is the finishing done? What is
the number and color of the eggs? Do
both parents feed the young? How do
young chippies act when they first leave
the nest? How large are the young birds
before the parents stop feeding them?
What are the differences in color and
markings between parents and young?
THE FIELD-SPARROW
A bubble of music floats, the slope of the
hillside over;
A little wandering sparrow's notes; and
the bloom of yarrow and clover,
And the smell of sweet-fern and the bay-
berry leaf, on his ripple of song are
stealing,
For he is a cheerful thief, the wealth of
the fields revealing.
One syllable, clear and soft as a raindrop's
silvery patter,
Or a tinkling fairy-bell; heard aloft, in the
midst of the merry chatter
Of robin and linnet and wren and /"ay, one
syllable, oft repeated;
He has but a word to say, and of that he
will not be cheated.
BIRDS
89
The singer I have not seen; but the song
I arise and follow
The brown hills over, the pastures green,
and into the sunlit hollow.
With a joy that his life unto mine has
lent, I can feel my glad eyes glisten,
Though he hides in his happy tent, while
I stand outside, and listen.
This way would I also sing, my dear little
hillside neighbor!
A tender carol of peace to bring to the
sunburnt fields of labor
Is better than making a loud ado; trill on,
amid clover and yarrow/
There's a heart-beat echoing you, and
blessing you, blithe little sparrow/
— LUCY LARCOM
THE SONG SPARROW
He does not wear a Joseph's coat of many colors, smart and gay
His suit is Quaker brown and gray, with darker patches at his throat.
And yet of all the well-dressed throng, not one can sing so brave a song.
It makes the pride of looks appear a vain and foolish thing to hear
In " Sweet, sweet, sweet, very merry cheer. "
A lofty place he does not love, he sits by choice and well at ease
In hedges and in little trees, that stretch their slender arms above
The meadow brook; and then he sings till all the field with pleasure rings;
And so he tells in every ear, that lowly homes to heaven are near
In " Sweet, sweet, sweet, very merry cheer."
— HENRY VAN DYKE
Children may commit to memory the
poem from which the above stanzas were
taken; seldom in literature have detailed
accurate observation and poetry been so
happily combined as in these verses. The
lesson might begin in March when we
are all listening eagerly for bird voices, and
the children should be asked to look out
for a little, brown bird which sings,
" Sweet, sweet, sweet, very merry cheer,"
or, as Thoreau interprets it, " Maids!
Maids! Maids! Hang on the teakettle,
teakettle-ettle-ettle." In early childhood
I learned to distinguish this sparrow by its
"Teakettle" song. Besides this song, it
has others quite as sweet; and when
alarmed it utters a sharp "Tchink,
t'chinL"
The song sparrow prefers the neighbor-
hood of brooks and ponds which are bor-
dered with bushes, and also the hedges
planted by nature along rail or other field
fences, and it has a special liking for the
shrubbery about gardens. Its movements
and flight are very characteristic; it usually
sits on the tip-top of a shrub or low tree
when it sings; when disturbed, however,
it never rises in the air but drops into a low
Leonard K. Beyer
The song sparrow usually builds its nest on
the ground
flight and plunges into a thicket with a
defiant twitch of the tail which says
plainly, " Find me if you can."
ANIMALS
A. A. Allen
The eggs are bluish white with many brown
markings
The color and markings of this bird
are typical of the sparrows. The head is
a warm brown with a gray streak along
the center of the crown and one above
each eye, with a dark line through the eye.
The back is brown with darker streaks.
The throat is white with a dark spot on
either side; the breast is white spotted
with brown with a large, dark blotch at
its very center; this breast blotch distin-
guishes this bird from all other sparrows.
The tail and wings are brown and without
buff or white bars or other markings. The
tail is long, rounded, and very expressive
of emotions, and makes the bird look
more slender than the English sparrow.
The nest is usually placed on the ground
or in low bushes not more than five feet
from the ground; it varies much in both
size and material; it is sometimes con-
structed of coarse weeds and grasses; and
sometimes only fine grass is used. Some-
times it is lined with hair, and again, with
fine grass; sometimes it is deep, but oc-
casionally is shallow. The eggs have a
whitish ground-color tinged with blue or
green, but are so blotched and marked
with brown that they are safe from ob-
servation of enemies. The nesting season
begins in May, and there are usually three
and sometimes four broods; but so far as
I have observed, a nest is never used for
two consecutive broods. The song spar-
rows stay with us in New York State very
late in the fall, and a few stay in sheltered
places all winter. The quality in this bird
which endears him to us all is the spirit
of song which stays with him; his sweet
trill may be heard almost any month of
the year, and he has a charming habit of
singing in his dreams.
The song sparrow is not only the dearest
of little neighbors, but it also works lustily
for our good and for its own food at the
same time. It destroys cutworms, plant
lice, caterpillars, canker-worms, ground
beetles, grasshoppers, and flies; in winter
it destroys thousands of weed seeds, which
otherwise would surely plant themselves
to our undoing. Every boy and girl should
take great pains to drive away stray cats
and to teach the family puss not to meddle
with birds; for cats are the worst of all
the song sparrow's enemies, destroying
thousands of its nestlings every year.
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Leaflet 31; Bird Stories from Burroughs,
by John Burroughs; Mother Nature Series,
by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor Trox-
ell, Book 3, In Field and Forest; also,
readings on pages 28-29.
LESSON 22
THE SONG SPARROW
LEADING THOUGHT — The beautiful
song of this sparrow is usually heard earlier
in the spring than the notes of bluebird
or robin. The dark blotch in the center of
its speckled breast distinguishes this spar-
row from all others; it is very beneficial
and should be protected from cats.
" Sweet, sweet, sweet, very merry cheer "
BIRDS
METHOD — All the observations of the
song sparrow must be made in the field,
and they are easily made because the bird
builds near houses, in gardens, and in the
shrubbery. Poetry and other literature
about the song sparrow should be given
to the pupils to read or to memorize.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Have you noticed
a little brown bird singing a very sweet
song in the early spring? Did the song
sound as if set to the words " Little Maid!
Little, Maid! Little Maid! Put on the tea-
kettle, teakettle-ettle-ettle "?
2. Where was this bird when you heard
him singing? How high was he perched
above the ground? What other notes did
you hear him utter?
3. Describe the colors and markings of
the song sparrow on head, back, throat,
breast, wings, and tail. Is this bird as large
as the English sparrow? What makes it
look more slim?
4. How can you distinguish the song
sparrow from the other sparrows? When
disturbed does it fly up or down? How
does it gesture with its tail as it disappears
in the bushes?
5. Where and of what material does
the song sparrow build its nest?
6. What colors and markings are on
the eggs? Do you think these colors and
markings are useful in concealing the eggs
when the mother bird leaves the nest?
7. How late in the season do you see
the song sparrows and hear their songs?
8. How can we protect these charming
little birds and induce them to build near
our houses?
91
9. What is the food of the song spar-
rows and how do they benefit our fields
and gardens? Name some of the injurious
insects that they eat.
THE SING-AWAY BIRD
Have you ever heard of the Sing-away
bird,
That sings where the Runaway River
Runs down with its rills from the bald-
headed hills
That stand in the sunshine and shiver?
" Oh, sing! sing-away! sing-away/ "
How the pines and the birches are stirred
By the trill of the Sing-away bird/
And the bald-headed hills, with their
rocks and their rills,
To the tune of his rapture are ringing;
And their faces grow young, all the gray
mists among,
While the forests break forth into sing-
ing.
" Oh, sing/ sing-away/ sing-awayl "
And the river runs singing along;
And the flying winds catch up the song.
Twas a white-throated sparrow, that sped
a light arrow
Of song from his musical quiver,
And it pierced with its spell every valley
and dell
On the banks of the Runaway River,
" Oh, sing/ sing-away/ sing-away/ "
The song of the wild singer had
The sound of a soul that is glad.
— LUCY LARCOM
THE MOCKINGBIRD
Among all the vocalists in the bird
world, the mockingbird is seldom rivaled
in the variety and richness of his repertoire.
The mockingbirds go as far north as south-
ern New England, but they are found at
their best in the Southern states and
in California. On the Gulf Coast the
mockers begin singing in February; in
warmer climates they sing almost the
year through. During the nesting season,
the father mocker is so busy with his cares
and duties during the day that he does not
have time to sing, and so he devotes the
nights to serenading; he may sing almost
all night long if there is moonlight, and
even on dark nights he gives now and
then a happy, sleepy song. Not all mock-
ingbirds are mockers; some sing their own
song, which is rich and beautiful; while
others learn, in addition, not only the
ANIMALS
L. A. Fuertes
The mockingbird
songs of other birds, but their call notes as
well. One authority noted a mocker which
imitated the songs of twenty species of
birds during a ten-minute performance.
When singing, the mocker shows his re-
lationship to the brown thrasher by lift-
ing the head and depressing and jerking
the tail. A good mocker will learn a tune,
or parts of it, if it is whistled often enough
in his hearing; he will also imitate other
sounds and will often improve on a song
he has learned from another bird by intro-
ducing frills of his own; when learning
a song, he sits silent and listens intently,
but will not try to sing it until it is learned.
Although the mockingbirds live in wild
places, they prefer the haunts of men, tak-
ing up their home sites in gardens and
cultivated grounds. Their flight is rarely
higher than the tree tops and is decidedly
jerky in character with much twitching of
the long tail. For nesting sites, they choose
thickets or the lower branches of trees, be-
ing especially fond of orange trees; the
nest is usually from four to twenty feet
from the ground. The foundation of the
nest is made of sticks, grasses, and weed
stalks interlaced and crisscrossed; on these
is built the nest of softer materials, such
as rootlets, horsehair, cotton, or in fact
anything suitable which is at hand. The
nest is often in plain sight, since the
mocker trusts to his strength as a fighter
to protect it. He will attack cats with great
ferocity and vanquish them; he will often
kill snakes; good-sized black snakes have
been known to end thus; he will also drive
away birds much larger than himself. In
making his attack, the mocker hovers
above his enemy and strikes it at the back
of the head or neck.
The female lays from four to six pale
greenish or bluish eggs blotched with
brown which hatch in about two weeks;
then comes a period of hard work for the
parents, as both are indefatigable in catch-
ing insects to feed the young. The mocker,
by the way, is an amusing sight as he
chases a beetle on the ground, lifting his
wings in a pugnacious fashion. The mock-
ers often raise three broods a season; the
young birds have spotted breasts, showing
their relationship to the thrasher.
As a wooer, the mocker is a bird of
much ceremony and dances into his lady's
graces. Mrs. F. W. Rowe, in describing
this, says that the birds stand facing each
other with heads and tails erect and wings
drooping; " then the dance would begin,
and this consisted of the two hopping
sideways in the same direction and in
rather a straight line a few inches at a
* : '''''" " ' • / "I • •' >'S^*"N|jS'
A. A. Allen
A mockingbird on her nest in a thicket
BIRDS
93
time, always keeping directly opposite
each other and about the same distance
apart. They would chassez this way four
or five feet, then go back over the same
line in the same manner/7 Mrs. Rowe
also observed that the male mockers have
hunting preserves of their own, not allow-
ing any other males of their species in
these precincts. The boundary was sus-
tained by tactics of both offense and
defense; but certain other species of
birds were allowed to trespass without
reproof.
Maurice Thompson describes in a de-
lightful manner the " mounting " and
" dropping " songs of the mocker which
occur during the wooing season. The
singer flits up from branch to branch of
a tree, singing as he goes, and finally on
the topmost bough gives his song of tri-
umph to the world; then, reversing the
process, he falls backward from spray to
spray, as if drunk with the ecstasy of his
own song, which is an exquisitely soft
" gurgling series of notes, liquid and sweet,
that seem to express utter rapture."
The mockingbirds have the same colors
in both sexes; the head is black, the back
is ashy-gray; the tail and wings are so
dark brown that they look black; the tail
is very long and has the outer tail feathers
entirely white and the two next inner ones
are white for more than half their length;
the wings have a strikingly broad, white
bar, which is very noticeable when the
bird is flying. The under parts and breast
are grayish white; the beak and legs are
blackish. The food of the mockingbirds
is about half insects and half fruit. They
live largely on the berries of the red cedar,
myrtle, and holly, and we must confess are
often too much devoted to the fruits in our
orchards and gardens; but let us put down
to their credit that they do their best to
exterminate the cotton boll caterpillars
and moths, and also many other insects
injurious to crops.
The mocker is full of tricks and is dis-
tinctly a bird of humor. He will frighten
other birds by screaming like a hawk and
then seem to chuckle over the joke.
Sidney Lanier describes him well:
^f^^ii^m,,^.^ ,.._ . „
%M . ; •
^
Leonard K. Beyer
The brown thrasher, a close relative of the
mockingbird; is also an accomplished musi-
cian
Whatever birds did or dreamed, tin's bird
could say.
Then down lie shot, bounced airily along
The sward, twitched in a grasshopper,
made song
Midffight, perched, prinked, and to his
art again.
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Leaflet 41; also, readings on pages 28-29.
LESSON 23
THE MOCKINGBIRD
LEADING THOUGHT — The mockingbird
is the only one of our common birds that
sings regularly at night. It imitates the
songs of other birds and has also a beauti-
ful song of its own. When feeding their
nestlings, the mockers do us great service
by destroying insect pests.
METHOD — Studies of this bird are best
made individually by the pupils through
watching the mockers which haunt the
houses and shrubbery. If there are mock-
ingbirds near the schoolhouse, the work
can be done in the most ideal way by keep-
ing records in the school of all the obser-
vations made by the pupils, thus bringing
out an interesting mockingbird story.
OBSERVATIONS— i. Duringwhatmonths
of the year and for how many months does
the mockingbird sing in this locality?
94
ANIMALS
2. Does he sing only on moonlight
nights? Does he sing all night?
3. Can you distinguish the true mock-
ingbird song from the songs which he has
learned from other birds? Describe the
actions of a mocker when he is sing-
ing.
4. How many songs of other birds have
you heard a mocker give and what are
the names of these birds?
5. Have you ever taught a mocker a
tune by whistling it in his presence? If
so, tell how long it was before he learned
it and how he acted while learning.
6. Describe the flight of the mocking-
birds. Do they fly high in the air like
crows?
7. Do these birds like best to live in
wild places or about houses and gardens?
8. Where do they choose sites for their
nests? Do they make an effort to hide the
nest? If not, why?
9. Of what material is the nest made?
How is it lined? How far from the ground
is it placed?
10. What are the colors of the eggs?
How many are usually laid? Flow long be-
fore they hatch?
11. Give instances of the parents' de-
votion to the young birds.
12. Have you seen two mockingbirds
dancing before each other just before the
nesting season?
13. In the spring have you heard a
mocker sing while mounting from the
lower to the upper branches of a tree and
then after pouring forth his best song fall
backward with a sweet, gurgling song as
if intoxicated with his music?
14. How many broods does a pair of
mockers raise during one season? How
does the color of the breast of the young
differ from that of the parent?
15. How does the father bird protect
the nestlings from other birds, cats, and
snakes?
16. Does the mocker select certain
places for his own hunting grounds and
drive off other mockers which trespass?
17. Describe the colors of the mocking-
bird as follows: beak, head, back, tail,
wings, throat, breast, under parts and feet.
18. What is the natural food of the
mockingbirds and how do they benefit the
farmer? How does the mocker act when
attacking a ground beetle?
19. Have you seen mockingbirds
frighten other birds by imitating the cry
of a hawk? Have you seen them play other
tricks?
20. Tell a story which includes your
own observations on the ways of mocking-
birds which you have known.
Soft and low the song began: I scarcely
caught it as it ran
Through the melancholy trill of the plain-
tive whip-poor-will,
Through the ringdove's gentle wail, chat-
tering jay and whistling quail,
Sparrow's twitter, catbird's cry, redbird's
whistle, robin's sigh;
Blackbird, bluebird, swallow, lark, each
his native note might mark.
Oft he tried the lesson o'er, each time
louder than before;
Burst at length the finished song, loud and
clear it poured along;
All the choir in silence heard, hushed be-
fore this wondrous bird.
All transported and amazed, scarcely
breathing, long I gazed.
Now it reached the loudest swell; lower,
lower, now it fell, —
Lower, lower, lower still, scarce it sounded
o'er the rill.
— JOSEPH RODMAN DRAKE
BIRDS
THE CATBIRD
The Catbird sings a crooked song? in minors that are flat,
And, when he can't control his voice he mews just like a cat.
Then nods his head and whisks his tail and lets it go at that.
— OLIVER DAVIE
As a performer, the catbird distinctly
belongs to the vaudeville, even going so
far as to appear in slate-colored tights. His
specialties range from the most exquisite
song to the most strident of scolding
notes; his nasal " n-y-a-a-h, n-y-a-a-h " is
not so very much like the cat's mew after
all, but when addressed to the intruder
it means " get out "; and not in the whole
gamut of bird notes is there another which
so quickly inspires the listener with this
desire. I once trespassed upon the terri-
tory of a well-grown catbird family and
the squalling that ensued was ear-splitting;
as I retreated, the triumphant youngsters
followed me for a few rods with every
sign of triumph in their actions and voices;
they obviously enjoyed my apparent
fright. The catbirds have rather a pleasant
" cluck, cluck " when talking to each
other, hidden in the bushes, and they also
have a variety of other notes. The true
song of the catbird, usually given in the
early morning, is very beautiful. Mr.
Mathews thinks it is a medley gathered
from other birds, but it seems to me very
individual. However, true to his vaude-
ville training, this bird is likely to intro-
duce into the middle or at the end of his
exquisite song some phrase that suggests
his cat call. He is, without doubt, a
true mocker and will often imitate the
robin's song, and also if opportunity offers
learns to converse fluently in chicken
language. One spring morning I heard
outside my window the mellow song of
the cardinal, which is a rare visitor in
New York, but there was no mistaking the
" tor-re-do, tor-re-do." I sprang from my
bed and rushed to the window, only to
see a catbird singing the cardinal song,
and thus telling me that he had come
from the sunny South and the happy com-
panionship of these brilliant birds. Often
when the catbird is singing, he sits on the
topmost spray of some shrub lifting his
head and depressing his tail, like a brown
thrasher; and again, he sings completely
hidden in the thicket.
In appearance the catbird is tailor-
made, belonging to the same social class
as the cedar-bird and the barn swallow.
Robert Matheson
A catbird on its nest
However, it affects quiet colors, and its
well-fitting costume is all slate-gray except
the top of the head and the tail which are
black; the feathers beneath the base of
the tail are brownish. The catbird is not
so large as the robin, and is of very differ-
ent shape; it is far more slender and has
a long, emotional tail. The way the cat-
bird twitches and tilts its tail, as it hops
along the ground or alights in a bush, is
very characteristic. It is a particularly alert
and nervous bird, always on the watch for
intruders, and the first to give warning to
all other birds of their approach. It is a
good fighter in defending its nest, and
there are several observed instances where
it has fought to defend the nest of other
species of birds; and it has gone even
The catbird lays three to five eggs of a rich
greenish blue in a well constructed nest in a
dense thicket
further in its philanthropy, by feeding
their orphaned nestlings.
The catbird chooses a nesting site in a
low tree or shrub or brier, where the nest
is built usually about four feet from the
ground. The nest looks untidy, but is
strongly made of sticks, coarse grass,
weeds, bark strips, and occasionally paper;
it is lined with soft roots and is almost al-
ways well hidden in dense foliage. The
eggs are from three to five in number and
are dark greenish blue. Both parents work
hard feeding the young and for this pur-
pose destroy many insects which we can
well spare. Sixty-two per cent of the food
of the young has been found in one in-
stance to be cutworms, showing what a
splendid work the parents do in our gar-
dens. In fact, during a large part of the
summer, while these birds are rearing their
two broods, they benefit us greatly by de-
stroying the insect pests; and although
later they may attack our fruits and ber-
ries, it almost seems as if they had earned
the right to their share. If we only had
the wisdom to plant along the fences some
elderberries or Russian mulberries, the cat-
birds as well as the robins would feed
upon them instead of the cultivated fruits.
ANIMALS
The catbirds afford a striking example
for impressing upon children that each
species of birds haunts certain kinds of
places. The catbirds are not often found
in deep woods or in open fields, but usu-
ally near low thickets along streams, and
in shrubbery along fences, in tangles of
vines, and especially do they like to build
about our gardens, if we protect them.
They are very fond of bathing, and if
fresh water is given them for this purpose,
we may have opportunity to witness the
most thorough bath a bird can take. A
catbird takes a long time to bathe and
preen its feathers and indulges in most
luxurious sun baths and thus deservedly
earns the epithet of " well-groomecl "; it
is one of the most intelligent of all our
birds and soon learns " what is what," and
repays in the most surprising way the trou-
ble of careful observation.
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Leaflet 70; Bird-House to Let, by Mary F.
Terrel; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by
John Burroughs; also, readings on pages
28-29.
LESSON 24
THE CATBIRD
LEADING THOUGHT — The catbird has
a beautiful song as well as the harsh
" miou," and can imitate other birds, al-
though not so well as the mockingbird.
It builds in low thickets and shrubbery
and during the nesting season is of great
benefit to our gardens.
METHOD — First, let the pupils study
and report upon the songs, scoldings, and
other notes of this our northern mocking-
bird; then let them describe its appearance
and habits.
OBSERVATIONS— i. Do you think the
squall of the catbird sounds like the mew
of a cat? When does the bird use this note
and what for? What other notes have you
heard it utter?
2. Describe as well as you can the cat-
bird's true song. Are there any harsh notes
in it? Where does he sit while singing?
Describe the actions of the catbird while
he is singing.
3. Have you ever heard the catbird imi-
BIRDS
tate the songs of other birds or other
noises?
4. Describe the catbird as follows: its
size and shape compared to the robin; the
color and shape of head, beak, wings, tail,
breast, and under parts.
5. Describe its peculiar actions and its
characteristic movements.
6. Where do catbirds build their nests?
How high from the ground? What ma-
terial is used? Is the nest compact and
carefully finished? Is it hidden?
7. What is the color of the eggs? Do
both parents care for the young?
8. What is the food of the catbird?
Why is it an advantage to us to have cat-
birds build in our gardens?
9. Do you ever find catbirds in the deep
woods or out in the open meadows?
Where do you find them?
97
10. Put out a pan of water where the
catbirds can use it and then watch them
make their toilets and describe the proc-
ess. Describe how the catbirds take sun
baths.
He sits on a branch of yon blossoming
bush,
This madcap cousin of robin and thrush.
And sings without ceasing the whole
morning long;
Now wild, now tender, the wayward
song
That flows from his soft, gray, fluttering
throat;
But often he stops in his sweetest note,
And, shaking a flower from the blossom-
ing bough,
Drawls out, " Mi-eu, mi-ow! "
— " THE CATBIRD/' EDITH M. THOMAS
Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.
A family of seven young belted kingfishers that were posed for the camera
THE BELTED KINGFISHER
This patrol of our streams and lake
shores, in his cadet uniform, is indeed a
military figure as well as a militant per-
sonality. As he sits upon his chosen branch
overhanging some stream or lake shore,
his crest abristle, his keen eye fixed on the
water below, his whole bearing alert, one
must acknowledge that this fellow puts
" ginger " into his environment, and that
the spirit which animates him is very far
from the " dolce far niente " which per-
meates the ordinary fisherman. However,
ANIMALS
Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.
A moment between diggings. This male
belted kingfisher hesitates on the doorstep of
the nesting burrow which lie is digging. To
him, rather than to his mate, falls the task of
home-building
he does not fish for fun but for business;
his keen eye catches the gleam of a mov-
ing fin and he darts from his perch, holds
himself for a moment on steady wings
above the surface of the water, to be sure
of his quarry, and then there is a dash
and a splash and he returns to his perch
with the wriggling fish in his strong beak.
Usually he at once proceeds to beat its life
out against a branch and then to swallow
it sensibly, head first, so that the fins
will not prick his throat nor the scales
rasp it. He swallows the entire fish, trust-
ing to his internal organs to select
the nourishing part; and later he gulps
up a ball of the indigestible scales and
bones.
The kingfisher is very different in form
from an ordinary bird; he is larger than
a robin, and his head and fore parts are
much larger in proportion; this is the more
noticeable because of the long feathers
Kingfisher's foot. This shows the weak
toes; the third and fourth are joined to-
gether, which undoubtedly assists the bird in
pushing out soil when excavating
of the head which he lifts into a crest, and
because of the shortness of the tail. The
beak is very long and strong, enabling the
kingfisher to seize the fish and hold it
fast, but the legs are short and weak. The
third and fourth toes are grown together
for a part of their length; this is of use
to the bird in pushing earth from the bur-
row, when excavating. The kingfisher has
no need for running and hopping, like
the robin, and therefore does not need
the robin's strong legs and feet. His colors
are beautiful and harmonious; the upper
parts are grayish blue, the throat and collar
white, as is also the breast, which has a
bluish gray band across the upper part,
this giving the name of the Belted King-
fisher to the bird. The feathers of the
wings are tipped with white and the tail
feathers narrowly barred with white. The
under side of the body is white in the
males, while in the females it is somewhat
chestnut in color. There is a striking white
spot just in front of the eye.
The kingfisher parents builcl their nest
in a burrow which they tunnel horizon-
tally in a bank; sometimes there is a vesti-
bule of several feet before the nest is
reached, and at other times it is built
very close to the opening. Both parents are
industrious in catching fish for their nest-
lings, but the burden of this duty falls
heaviest upon the male. Many fish bones
are found in the nest, and they seem so
clean and white that they have been re-
garded as nest lining. Wonderful tales are
told of the way the English kingfishers use
Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.
A large sharply pointed bill and a good aim
behind it is all the equipment this feathered
fisherman needs to catch his food
BIRDS
99
fish bones to support the earth above their
nests, and tributes have been paid to their
architectural skill. But it is generally con-
ceded that the lining of fish bones in the
nests of our kingfisher is incidental, since
the food of the young is largely fish, al-
though frogs, insects, and other creatures
are often eaten with relish. It is interesting
to note the process by which the young
kingfisher gets its skill in fishing. I have
often seen one dive horizontally for a yard
or two beneath the water and come up
indignant and sputtering because the fish
had escaped. It was fully two weeks more
before this one learned to drop like a
bullet on its quarry.
The note of the kingfisher is a loud rat-
tle, not especially pleasant close at hand,
but not unmusical at a little distance. It is
a curious coincidence that it sounds very
much like the clicking of the fisherman's
reel; it is a sound that conjures visions of
shade-dappled streams and the dancing,
blue waters of tree-fringed lakes and
ponds.
There seems to be a division of fishing
ground among the kingfishers, one bird
rarely trespassing upon its neighbor's pre-
serves. Unless it be the parent pair work-
ing near each other for the nestlings, or
the nestlings still under their care, we sel-
dom see two kingfishers in the same im-
mediate locality.
SUGGESTED READING — American Bird
Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon
Bird Leaflet 19; also, readings on pages
28-29.
LESSON 25
THE KINGFISHER
LEADING THOUGHT — The kingfisher is
fitted by form of body and beak to be a
fisherman.
METHOD — If the school be near a
stream or pond the following observations
may be made by the pupils; otherwise let
the boys who go fishing make a study of
the bird and report to the school.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Where have you
seen the kingfisher? Have you often seen it
on a certain branch which is its favorite
perch? Is this perch near the water? What
is the advantage of this position to the
bird?
2. What does the kingfisher feed upon?
How does it obtain its food? Describe the
actions of one of these birds while fishing.
3. With what weapons does the king-
fisher secure the fish? How long is its beak
compared with the rest of its body? How
does it kill the fish? Does it swallow the
fish head or tail first? Why? Does it tear
off the scales or fins before swallowing it?
How does it get rid of these and the bones
of the fish?
4. Which is the larger, the kingfisher
or the robin? Describe the difference in
shape of the bodies of these two birds;
also in the size and shape of feet and
beaks, and explain why they are so differ-
ent in form. What is there peculiar about
the kingfisher's feet? Do you know which
two toes are grown together?
5. What are the colors of the kingfisher
in general? The colors of head, sides of
head, collar, back, tail, wings, throat,
breast, and under parts? Is there a white
spot near the eye? If so, where? Do you
know the difference in colors between the
parent birds?
6. Where is the nest built? How is it
lined?
7. What is the note of the kingfisher?
Does it give it while perching or while on
the wing? Do you ever find more than one
kingfisher on the same fishing grounds?
THE KINGFISHER
(OF ENGLAND)
For the handsome Kingfisher, go not to
the tree,
No bird of the field or the forest is he;
In the dry river rock he did never abide,
And not on the brown heath all barren
and wide.
He lives where the fresh, sparkling waters
are flowing,
Where the tall heavy Typha and Loose-
strife are growing;
By the bright little streams that all joyfully
run
Awhile in the shadow, and then in the sun.
ioo ANIMALS
He lives in a hole that is quite to his
mind,
With the green mossy Hazel roots firmly
entwined;
Where the dark Alder-bough waves grace-
fully o'er,
And the Sword-flag and Arrow-head grow
at his door.
There busily, busily, all the day long,
He seelcs for small fishes the shallows
among;
For he builds his nest of the pearly fish-
bone,
Deep, deep, in the bank, far retired, and
alone.
Then the brown Water-Rat from his bur-
row loots out,
To see what his neighbor Kingfisher's
about;
And the green Dragon-fly, flitting slowly
away,
Just pauses one moment to bid him good-
day.
O happy Kingfisher/ What care should he
know,
By the clear, pleasant streams, as he skims
to and fro,
Now lost in the shadow, now bright in the
sheen
Of the hot summer sun, glancing scarlet
and green/
— MARY HOWITT
THE SCREECH OWL
Disquiet yourselves not; Tis nothing but a little, downy owl. — SHELLEY
Of all the sounds to be heard at night
in the woods, the screech owl's song is
surely the most fascinating; its fascination
does not depend on music but upon the
Country Life in America
Screech owls
chills which it sends up and down the
spine of the listener, thus attacking a quite
different set of nerves than do other bird
songs. The weird wail, tremulous and long
drawn out, although so blood-curdling, is
from the standpoint of the owlet the most
beautiful music in the world; by means of
it he calls to his mate, cheering her with
the assurance of his presence in the world;
evidently she is not a nervous creature.
The screech owls are likely to sing at night
during any part of the year; nor should we
infer that when they are singing they are
not hunting, for perchance their music
frightens their victims into fatal activity.
Although the note is so unmistakable, yet
there is great variation in the songs of in-
dividuals; the great variety of quavers in
the song offers ample opportunity for the
expression of individuality. Moreover,
these owls often give themselves over to
tremulous whispering and they emphasize
excitement by snapping their beaks in an
alarming manner.
Any bird that is flying about and singing
in the night time must be able to see
where it is going, and the owls have spe-
cial adaptations for this. The eyes are
BIRDS
101
very large and the yellow iris opens and
closes about the pupil in a way quite simi-
lar to the arrangement in the cat's eye,
except that the pupil in the owl's eye is
round when contracted instead of elon-
gated; in the night this pupil is expanded
until it covers most of the eye. The owl
does not need to see behind and at the
sides, since it does not belong to the birds
which are the victims of other birds and
animals of prey. The owl is a bird that
hunts instead of being hunted, and it
needs only to focus its eyes on the creature
it is chasing. Thus, its eyes are in the front
of the head like our own; but it can see
behind, in case of need, for the head turns
upon the neck as if it were fitted on a ball-
bearing joint. I have often amused my-
self by walking around a captive screech
owl, which would follow me with its eyes
by turning the head until it almost made
the circle; then the head would twist back
with such lightning rapidity that I could
hardly detect the movement. It seemed
almost as if the head were on a pivot and
could be moved around and around in-
definitely. Although the owl, like the cat,
has eyes fitted for night hunting, it can
also see fairly well during the daytime.
A beak with the upper mandible end-
ing in a sharp hook signifies that its owner
lives upon other animals and needs to
rend and tear flesh. The owl's beak thus
formed is somewhat buried in the feathers
of the face, which gives it a striking resem-
blance to a Roman nose. This, with the
great, staring, round eyes, bestows upon
the owl an appearance of great wisdom.
But it is not the beak which the owl uses
for a weapon of attack; its strong feet and
sharp, curved claws are its weapons for
striking the enemy and also for grappling
with its prey. The outer toe can be moved
back at will, so that in grasping its prey
or its perch, two toes may be directed for-
ward and two backward, thus giving a
stronger hold.
The ear is very different in form from
the ear of other birds; instead of being a
mere hole opening into the internal ear, it
consists of a fold of skin forming a chan-
nel which extends from above the eye
S. A. Grimes
A barn or monkey -faced owl
around to the side of the throat. Thus
equipped, while hunting in the dark the
owl is able to hear any least rustle of
mouse or bird and to know in which direc-
tion to descend upon it. There has been
no relation established between the ear
tufts of the screech owl and its ears, so far
as I know, but the way the bird lifts the
tufts when it is alert always suggests that
this movement in some way opens up the
ear.
In color there are two phases among the
screech owls, one reddish brown, the other
gray. The back is streaked with black,
the breast is marked with many shaft-lines
of black. The whole effect of the owl's
plumage makes it resemble a branch of a
tree or a part of the bark, and thus it is
protected from prying eyes during the day-
time when it is sleeping. Its plumage is
very fluffy and its wing feathers, instead
of being stiff to the very edge, have soft
fringes which cushion the stroke upon the
air. The owl's flight is, therefore, noiseless;
and the bird is thus able to swoop down
upon its prey without giving warning of its
approach.
The screech owls are partial to old ap-
ple orchards for nesting sites. They will
often use the abandoned nest of a wood-
pecker; the eggs are almost as round as
marbles and as white as chalk; it is well
that they are laid within a dark hole, for
otherwise their color would attract the
1O2
ANIMALS
S. A. Grimes
The great horned owl
eyes of enemies. There are usually four
eggs; the fubsy little owlets climb out of
their home cave by the end of May and
are the funniest little creatures imagina-
ble. They make interesting but decidedly
snappy pets; they can be fed on insects
and raw beef. It is most interesting to see
one wake up late in the afternoon after its
daytime sleep. All day it has sat motion-
less upon its perch with its toes completely
covered with its fluffy feather skirt. Sud-
denly its eyes open, the round pupils en-
larging or contracting with great rapidity
as if adjusting themselves to the amount
of light. When the owl winks it is like a
moon in eclipse, so large are the eyes, and
so entirely are they obscured by the lids,
which seem like circular curtains. When
it yawns, its wide bill absurdly resembles
a human mouth, and the yawn is very hu-
man in its expression. It then stretches its
wings; it is astonishing how far this wing
can be extended below the feet. It then
begins its toilet. It dresses its feathers with
its short beak, nibbling industriously in
the fluff; it scratches its under parts and
breast with its bill, then cleans the bill
with its foot, meanwhile moving the head
up and down as if in an attempt to see its
surroundings better.
The owls are loyal lovers and are said
to remain mated through life, the twain
being very devoted to their nests and nest-
lings. Sometimes the two wise-looking lit-
tle parents sit together on the eggs, a most
happy way to pass the wearisome incuba-
tion period.
The screech owls winter in the north
and are distinctly foresighted in pre-
paring for winter. They have often been
observed catching mice, during the late
fall, and placing them in some hollow tree
for cold storage, whence they may be taken
in time of need. Their food consists to
some extent of insects, especially night-
flying moths and beetles, and also cater-
pillars and grasshoppers. However, the
larger part of their food is mice; some-
times small birds are caught, and the Eng-
lish sparrow is a frequent victim. Chickens
are rarely taken, except when small, since
this owlet is not as long as a robin. It swal-
lows its quarry as whole as possible, trust-
ing to its inner organs to do the sifting and
selecting. Later it throws up pellets of the
indigestible bones, hair, etc. By the study
of these pellets, found under owl roosts,
the scientists have been able to determine
the natural food of the bird, and they all
unite in assuring us that the screech owl
does the farmer much more good than
harm, since it feeds so largely upon crea-
tures which destroy his crops.
SUGGESTED READING — American Bird
Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon
Bird Leaflet 11; Bird Stories, by Edith M.
Patch; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by
John Burroughs; Birds in the Wilderness,
by George M. Sutton; Mother Nature
Series, by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor
Troxell, Book 3, In Field and Forest; Our
Backdoor Neighbors, by Frank C. Pellett;
The Pet Boole, by Anna B. Comstock;
also, readings on pages 28-29.
LESSON 26
THE SCREECH OWL
LEADING THOUGHT — This owl is espe-
cially adapted to get its prey at night. It
feeds largely on field mice, grasshoppers,
caterpillars, and other injurious insects and
is therefore the friend of the farmer.
METHOD — This lesson should begin
when the children first hear the cry of this
owl; and an owl in captivity is a fascinat-
ing object for the children to observe.
However, it is so important that the chil-
dren learn the habits of this owl that the
teacher is advised to hinge the lesson on
BIRDS 103
any observation whatever made by the pu- laid? What is their color? At what time of
- - - year do the little owls appear?
9. Where does the screech owl spend
the winter? What do the screech owls feed
upon? Do they chew their food? How do
pils, and illustrate it with pictures and
stories.
OBSERVATIONS— i. Have you ever
heard the screech owl? At what time of
the day or night? Why was this? Why they get rid of the indigestible portion of
does the owl screech? How did you feel their food? How does this habit help sci-
when listening to the owl's song? entists to know the food of the owls?
2. Describe the owl's eyes. Are they 10. How does the screech owl work in-
adapted to see by night? What changes
take place in them to enable the owl to
see by day also? In what way are the
owl's eyes similar to the cat's? Why is it
necessary for an owl to see at night? Are
the owl's eyes placed so that they can
see at the sides like other birds? How
does it see an object at the sides or be-
hind it?
3. Note the owl's beak. For what pur-
pose is a hooked beak? How does the owl
use its beak? Why do we think that the
owl looks wise?
4. Describe the feet and claws of the
screech owl. What are such sharp hooked
claws meant for? Does an owl on a perch
always have three toes directed forward
and one backward?
5. Describe the colors of the screech
owl. Are all these owls of the same color?
How do these colors protect the bird from
its enemies?
6. How is the owl's plumage adapted to
silent flight? Why is silent flight advan-
tageous to this bird?
7. How does the owl's ear differ from
the ears of other birds? Of what special ad-
vantage is this? As the owl hunts during
the night, what does it do in the daytime?
How and by what means does it hide it-
self?
8. Where does the screech owl make its
nest? Do you know anything about the
devotion of the parent owls to each other
and to their young? How many eggs are
jury to the farmers? How does it benefit
them? Does not the benefit outweigh the
injury?
11. How many other kinds of owls do
you know? What do you know of their
habits?
TWO WISE OWLS
We are two dusJky owls, and we live in a
tree;
Loolc at her, — look at me!
Look at her, — she's my mate, and the
mother of three
Pretty owlets, and we
Have a warm cosy nest, just as snug as can
be.
We are both very wise; for our heads, as
you see,
(Look at her — look at me/)
Are as large as the heads of four birds
ought to be;
And our horns, you'll agree.
Make us loofc wiser still, sitting here on the
tree.
And we care not how gloomy the night-
time may be;
We can see, — we can see;
Through the forest to roam, it suits her, it
suits me;
And we're free, — we are free
To bring back what we find, to our nest
in the tree.
— ANONYMOUS
ANIMALS
S. A. Grimes
The fish hawk or osprey. This hawk builds its large nest from twenty to fifty feet above the
ground. It subsists almost entirely on fish
THE HAWKS
Above the tumult of the canon lifted, the gray hawk breathless hung,
Or on the hill a winged shadow drifted where furze and thornbush clung.
— BRET HARTE
It is the teacher's duty and privilege to
try to revolutionize some popular miscon-
ceptions about birds, and two birds, in
great need in this respect, are the so-called
hen hawks. They are most unjustly
treated, largely because most farmers con-
sider that a " hawk is a hawk/' and should
always be shot to save the poultry, al-
though there is as much difference in the
habits of hawks as there is in those of men.
The so-called hen hawks are the red-shoul-
dered and the red-tailed species, the latter
being somewhat the larger and rarer of
the two. Both are very large birds. The
red-shouldered has cinnamon brown
epaulets; the tail is blackish, crossed by five
or six narrow white bars, and the wing
feathers are also barred. The red-tailed
species has dark brown wings; the feathers
are not barred, and it is distinguished by
its tail which is brilliant cinnamon color
with a black bar across it near the end; it
is silvery white beneath. When the hawk
is soaring, its tail shows reddish as it wheels
in the air. Both birds are brown above and
whitish below, streaked with brown.
The flight of these hawks is similar and
is very beautiful; it consists of soaring on
outstretched wings in wide circles high in
the air, and is the ideal of graceful aerial
motion. In rising, the bird faces the wind
and drops a little in the circle as its back
turns to the leeward, and thus it climbs
an invisible winding stair until it is a mere
speck in the sky. When the bird wishes to
drop, it lifts and holds its wings above its
BIRDS
back, and comes down like a lump of lead,
only to catch itself whenever it chooses to
begin again to climb the invisible spiral.
And all this is done without fatigue, for
these birds have been observed to soar
thus for hours together without coming
to earth. When thus soaring the two spe-
cies may be distinguished from each other
by their cries; the red-tailed gives a high
sputtering scream, which Chapman likens
to the sound of escaping steam; while the
red-shouldered calls in a high not unmusi-
cal note " kee-you, kee-you " or " tee-ur,
tee-ur."
The popular fallacy for the teacher to
correct about these birds is that they are
enemies of the farmers. Not until a hawk
has actually been seen to catch chick-
ens should it be shot, for very few of them
are guilty of this sin. Sixty-six per cent of
the food of the red-tailed species consists
of injurious animals, i.e., mice and go-
phers, etc., and only seven per cent con-
sists of poultry; the victims are probably
old or disabled fowls, and fall an easy prey;
this bird much prefers mice and reptiles to
poultry. The more common red-shoul-
S. A. Grimes
The marsh hawk. This is a bird of the open
fields. It flies low in search of rodents, rep-
tiles, frogs, and insects. It may be identified
by a white spot on the rump
A. A. Allen
Red-tailed hawk
dered hawk feeds generally on mice,
snakes, frogs, fish, and is very fond of grass-
hoppers. Ninety per cent of its food con-
sists of creatures which injure our crops or
pastures and scarcely one and one-half per
cent is made up of poultry and game.
These facts have been ascertained by the
experts in the Department of Agriculture
at Washington who have examined the
stomachs of hundreds of these hawks
taken from different localities. Further-
more, Dr. Fisher states that a pair of the
red-shouldered hawks bred for successive
years within a few hundred yards of a poul-
try farm containing 800 young chickens
and 400 ducks, and the owner never saw
them attempt to catch a fowl.
However, there are certain species of
hawks which are to be feared; these are
the Cooper's hawk and the sharp-shinned
hawk, the first being very destructive to
poultry and the latter killing many wild
birds. These are both somewhat smaller
than the species we are studying. They
are both dark gray above and have very
long tails, and when flying they flap their
wings for a time and then glide a distance.
They do not soar on motionless outspread
pinions by the hour.
When hawks are seen soaring, they are
likely to be hunting for mice in the mead-
ows below them. Their eyes are remarka-
bly keen; they can see a moving creature
from a great height, and can suddenly
drop upon it like a thunderbolt out of a
clear sky. Their wonderful eyes are far-
sighted when they are circling in the sky,
BIRDS OF PREY AND SCAVENGERS
1. SPARROW HAWKS. In summer these
birds will be found from northern Canada
south to the Gulf states except in peninsular
Florida and the arid regions of the South-
west; in winter from the northern United States
to Panama. About eleven inches in length, this
pretty little hawk has readily adapted itself to
civilization and in densely populated areas
makes its nest about buildings and even in bird-
houses. The sparrow hawk should be protected
everywhere, for it is useful to man; it feeds
chiefly on mice and insects. (Photo by Doro-
thy M. Compton)
2. SNOWY OWL. One of the largest and most
handsome of owls, the snowy owl, is at home in
the northern part of the Northern Hemisphere;
it breeds as far north as land is found and as far
south as northern Quebec, Manitoba, and British
Columbia. In winter it migrates southward in
search of food if mice and lemmings become
scarce in the North. In North America the winter
range may extend as far south as the Gulf states,
in Europe as far south as France and Switzer-
land, and in Asia to northern India and Japan.
This owl is seldom seen in trees, preferring the
open country, probably because the rodents
which are its principal food are found there.
(Photo by Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.)
3. A YOUNG SCREECH OWL. The range of
these birds extends from southern Canada to
the southern United States. They breed over
most of this area. The screech owl is not quite
so long as a robin. It often nests in a small
cavity in a tree or even in a birdhouse. It is
not unusual for the owl to use the same nesting
place year after year. It feeds largely on mice,
other small mammals, insects, and small birds.
This owl is unique in that it has two color
phases; both male and female may be either gray
or reddish brown. (Photo by Dorothy M. Comp*
ton)
4. HERRING GULL. These birds are scav-
engers found along the coasts and inland
waters of the Northern Hemisphere. They
nest in colonies, usually on islands but always
near the water. The nest of seaweed, grasses,
or moss is generally built on the ground. Flocks
of herring gulls are often seen near piers and
wharves where they perform a valuable service
by feeding on garbage and refuse. It is generally
this bird that follows coastwise boats waiting
for refuse to be thrown overboard. (Photo by
Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.)
5. AN ADULT SCREECH OWL. Perched in a
tree, the screech owl is difficult to detect, for
he is easily mistaken for branches and leaves.
(Photo by A. A. Allen)
6. A BLACK VULTURE AT THE ENTRANCE
TO ITS NEST. This is a scavenger of the South.
Though it rarely breeds north of Maryland,
it is occasionally seen in some of the central
states. The value of these birds in removing
health-menacing garbage and carrion is so
great that they are protected by law and public
sentiment. They are quite numerous in the
South and are often seen in towns and cities.
The black vulture does not build a nest; the
eggs are laid in cavities in trees or rocks, in
hollow stumps, or on the ground beneath bushes.
(Photo by S.A. Grimes')
7. AUDUBON'S CAR AC ABA. This bird's usual
range is from Lower California, Arizona, Texas,
and southern Florida southward to Ecuador;
it has been reported as an accidental visitor as
far north as Ontario. The nest is a bulky struc-
ture of sticks, branches, roots, grass, and leaveSj
usually placed in trees or on bushes or ledges.
Caracaras are often seen in the company of
vultures, feeding on carrion, and they also
capture and eat snakes, frogs, and lizards. The
caracara's flight is direct and rapid, not at all
like that of the vulture, which sails and soars in
spirals. (Photo by S. A. Grimes)
io8
ANIMALS
Leonard K. Beyer
Nest and eggs of the marsh hawk
but as they drop, the focus of the eyes
changes automatically with great rapid-
ity, so that by the time they reach the
earth they are nearsighted, a feat quite
impossible for our eyes unless aided by
glasses or telescope.
These so-called hen hawks will often sit
motionless, for hours at a time, on some
dead branch or dead tree; they are proba-
bly watching for something eatable to stir
within the range of their keen vision.
When seizing its prey, a hawk uses its
strong feet and sharp, curved talons. All
hawks have sharp and polished claws, even
as the warrior has a keen, bright sword; the
legs are covered by a growth of feathers
extending down from above, looking like
feather trousers. The beak is hooked and
very sharp and is used for tearing apart
the flesh of the quarry. When a hawk
fights some larger animal or man, it
throws itself over upon its back and strikes
its assailant with its strong claws as well
as with its beak; but the talons are its chief
weapons.
Both species build a large, shallow nest
of coarse sticks and grass, lined with moss,
feathers, etc.; it is a rude, rough structure,
and is placed in tall trees from fifty to
sfeventy-five feet from the ground. Only
two to four eggs are laid; these are whitish,
spotted with brown. These hawks are said
to remain mated for life and are devoted
to each other and to their young. Hawks
and eagles are very similar in form and
habits, and if the eagle is a noble bird, so
is the hawk.
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Leaflets 8, 9, 10, 37, 82, 122; Bird Stories
from Burroughs, by John Burroughs; Food
Habits of Common Hawlcs, by W. L.
McAtee (U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Circular 370); The Hawlcs of North
America, by John B. May; Our Backdoor
Neighbors, by Frank C. Pellett; also, read-
ings on pages 28-29.
LESSON 27
THE HAWKS
LEADING THOUGHT — Uninformed peo-
ple consider all hawks dangerous neigh-
bors because they are supposed to feed
exclusively on poultry. This idea is false
and we should study carefully the habits
of hawks before we shoot them. The ordi-
nary large reddish " hen hawks," which
circle high above meadows, are doing great
good to the farmer by feeding upon the
mice and other creatures which steal his
grain and girdle his trees.
METHOD — Begin by observations on
the flight of one of these hawks and sup-
plement this with such observations as the
pupils are able to make, or facts which
they can discover by talking with hunters
or others, and by reading.
OBSERVATIONS — i. How can you tell a
Leonard K. Beyer
Young marsh hawks
BIRDS
109
hawk, when flying, from a crow or other
large bird? Describe how it soars. Does
it move off in any direction? If so, does it
move off in circles? How often does it
make strokes with its wings? Does it rise
when it is facing the wind and fall as it
turns its back to the wind?
2. Have you seen a hawk flap its wings
many times and then soar for a time? If
so, what hawk do you think it was? How
does it differ in habits from the "hen
hawks "?
3. Have you noticed a hawk when soar-
ing drop suddenly to earth? If so, why did
it do this?
4. How does a hawk hunt? How, when
it is so high in the air that it looks like a
circling speck in the sky, can it see a mouse
in a meadow? If it is so farsighted as
this, how can it be nearsighted enough to
catch the mouse when it is close to it?
Would you not have to use field glasses
or telescope to do this?
5. When a hawk alights what sort of
place does it choose? How does it act?
6. Do hawks seize their prey with their
claws or their beaks? What sort of feet
and claws has the hawk? Describe the
beak. What do you think a beak of this
shape is meant for?
7. Why do people shoot hawks? Why
is it a mistake for people to wish to shoot
all hawks?
8. What is the food of the red-shoul-
dered hawk as shown by the bulletin of
the U.S. Department of Agriculture or by
the Audubon leaflets?
9. Where does the hawk place its nest?
Of what does it build its nest?
10. Compare the food and the nesting
habits of the red-shouldered and red-
tailed hawks?
1 1 . How devoted are the hawks to their
mates and to their young? Does a hawk,
having lost its mate, live alone ever after?
12. Describe the colors of the hen
hawks and describe how you can tell the
two species apart by the colors and mark-
ings of the tail.
13. What is the cry of the hawk? How
can you tell the two species apart by this
cry? Does the hawk give its cry only when
on the wing?
14. Why should an eagle be considered
so noble a bird and the hawk be so
scorned? What difference is there be-
tween them in habits?
Yet, ere the noon, as brass the heaven
turns,
The cruel sun smites with unerring aim,
The sight and touch of all things blinds
and burns,
And bare, hot hills seem shimmering
into flame!
On outspread wings a hawk, far poised on
high,
Quick swooping screams, and then is
heard no more:
The strident shrilling of a locust nigh
Breaks forth, and dies in silence as be-
fore.
— " SUMMER DROUGHT," J. P. IRVINE
THE SWALLOWS AND THE CHIMNEY SWIFT
These friendly little birds spend their
time darting through the air on swift
wings, seeking and destroying insects
which are foes to us and to our various
crops. However, it is safe to assume that
they are not thinking of us as they skim
above our meadows and ponds, hawking
our tiny foes; for like most of us, they are
simply intent upon getting a living.
Would that we might perform this nec-
essary duty as gracefully as they!
In general, the swallows have a long,
slender, graceful body, with a long tail
which is forked or notched, except in the
case of the eave swallow. The beak is short
but wide where it joins the head; this en-
ables the bird to open its mouth wide and
gives it more scope in the matter of catch-
ing insects; the swift flight of the swallows
enables them to catch insects on the wing.
Their legs are short, the feet are weak and
fitted for perching; it would be quite im-
no
ANIMALS
L. A. Fuertes
Swallows and swifts
possible for a swallow to walk or hop like
a robin or blackbird.
THE EAVE OR CLIFF SWALLOWS —
These swallows build under the eaves of
barns or in similar locations. In early times
they built against the sides of cliffs; but
when man came and built barns, they
chose them for their dwelling sites. The
nest is made of mud pellets and is some-
what globular in shape, with an entrance
at one side. When the nest is on the side
of a cliff or in an unprotected portion of
a barn, a covered passage is built around
the door, which gives the nest the shape
of a gourd or retort; but when protected
beneath the eaves the birds seem to think
this vestibule is unnecessary. The mud
nest is warmly lined with feathers and soft
materials, and often there are many nests
built so closely together that they touch.
The eave swallow comes north about May
i, and soon after that may be seen along
streams or other damp places gathering
mud for the nests. It seems necessary for
the bird to find clay mud in order to ren-
der the nest strong enough to support the
eggs and nestlings. The eggs are white,
blotched with reddish brown. The parents
cling to the edge of the nest when feeding
A. A. Allen
Nests of cliff swallows
Leonard K. Beyer
Barn swallow and nest
the young. Both the barn and eave swal-
lows are blue above, but the eave swallow
has the forehead cream white and the
rump of pale brick-red, and its tail is
square across the end as seen in flight. The
bam swallow has a chestnut forehead and
its outer tail feathers are long, making a
distinct fork during flight, and it is not red
upon the rump.
THE BARN SWALLOWS — These birds
choose a bam where there is a hole in the
gable or where the doors are kept open all
the time. They build upon beams or raf-
ters, making a cup-shaped nest of layers of
pellets of mud, with grass between; it is
well lined with feathers. The nest is usu-
ally the shape of half of a shallow cup
which has been cut in two lengthwise, the
BIRDS
cut side being plastered against the side of
the rafter. Sometimes the nests are more
or less supported upon a beam or rafter;
the eggs are white and dotted with reddish
brown. The barn swallows, aside from
their constant twittering, have also a
pretty song. Both parents work at build-
ing the nest and feeding the young; there
are likely to be several pairs nesting in the
same building. The parents continue to
feed the young long after they have left
the nest; often a whole family may be seen
sitting on a telegraph wire or wire fence,
the parents still feeding the well-grown
youngsters. This species comes north in
This barn swallow's nest is well feathered
the latter part of April and leaves early in
September. It winters as far south as
Brazil.
The barn swallow has a distinctly tailor-
made appearance; its red-brown vest and
iridescent blue coat, with deeply forked
" coat tails " give it an elegance of style
which no other bird, not even the chic
cedar waxwing, can emulate.
THE BANK SWALLOW — When we see a
sandy bank apparently shot full of holes as
by small cannon balls, we may know that
we have found a tenement of bank swal-
lows. These birds always choose the per-
pendicular banks of creeks or of railroad
cuts or of sand pits for their nesting sites;
they require a soil sufficiently soft to be
tunneled by their weak feet, and yet not
so loose as to cave in upon the nest. The
tunnel may extend from one to four feet
Leonard K. Beyer
The band of color across the breast is the dis-
tinguishing mark of the bank swallow
horizontally in the bank with just enough
diameter to admit the body of the rather
small bird. The nest is situated at the
extreme end of the tunnel and is lined
with soft feathers and grasses.
The bank swallows arrive late in April
and leave early in September. They may
be distinguished from the other species by
their grayish color above; the throat and
breast are white with a broad, brownish
band across the breast; .-the tail is slightly
forked. The rough-winged swallow, which
is similar in habits to the bank swallow,
may be distinguished from it by its gray
breast which has no dark band.
THE TREE SWALLOW — This graceful
little bird builds naturally in holes in trees,
but readily accepts a box if it is provided.
It begins to build soon after it comes
north in late April, and it is well for us
to encourage the tree swallows to live near
Leonard K. Beyer
Nesting site of a colony of bank swallows
112
ANIMALS
George Fiske, Jr.
A tree swallow
our houses by building houses for them
and driving away the English sparrows.
The tree swallows live upon many insects
which annoy us and injure our gardens
and damage our orchards; they are, there-
fore, much more desirable neighbors than
the English sparrows. The tree swallows
congregate in great numbers for the south-
ern migration very early in the season.
often in early August. They are likely to
congregate in marshes, as are also the
other swallows. In color the tree swallow
has a green metallic back and head, and
a pure white breast with no band across
it; these peculiarities distinguish it from
all other species.
THE PURPLE MARTIN — The martin is
a larger bird than any other swallow, be-
ing eight inches in length, while the barn
swallow does not measure quite seven.
The male is shining, steel-blue above and
below; the female is brownish above, has
a gray throat, brownish breast and is white
beneath. The martins originally nested in
hollow trees but for centuries have been
cared for by man. The Indians were wont
to put out empty gourds for them to nest
in; and as soon as America was settled by
Europeans, martin boxes were built ex-
A. A. Allen
Nest of chimney swifts
Leonard K. Beyer
Two bank swallows at the entrances to their
burrows
tensively. But when the English sparrows
came, they took possession of the boxes,
and the martins have to a large extent dis-
appeared; this is a pity since they are bene-
ficial birds, feeding upon insects which
are injurious to our farms and gardens.
They are also delightful birds to have
around, and we may possibly induce them
to come back to us by building houses
for them and driving away the sparrows.
THE CHIMNEY SWIFT
When the old-fashioned fireplaces
went out of use and were walled up, leav-
ing the great old chimneys useless, these
sociable birds took possession of them.
BIRDS
113
Here they built their nests and reared their
young, and twittered and scrambled about,
awakened all sleepers in the neighbor-
hood at earliest dawn, and in many ways
made themselves a distinct part of family
life. With the disappearance of these old
chimneys and the growing use of the
smaller chimney, the swifts have been
more or less driven from their close asso-
ciation with people; and now their nests
are often found in hay barns or other
secluded buildings, although they still
gather in chimneys when opportunity
offers.
The chimney swifts originally built
nests in hollow trees and caves; but with
the coming of civilization they took pos-
session of the chimneys disused during the
summer, and here is where we know them
best. The nests are shaped like little wall
pockets; they are made of small sticks of
nearly uniform size which are glued to-
gether and glued fast to the chimney wall
by means of the saliva secreted in the
mouth of the bird. After the nesting sea-
son, the swifts often gather in great flocks
and live together in some large chimney;
toward nightfall they may be seen cir-
cling about in great numbers and drop-
ping into the mouth of the chimney, one
by one, as if they were being poured into
a funnel. In the morning they leave in
reverse manner, each swift flying about
in widening circles as it leaves the chim-
ney. The swifts are never seen to alight
anywhere except in hollow trees or chim-
neys or similar places; their tiny feet have
sharp claws for clinging to the slightest
roughness of the upright wall; the tail
acts as a prop, each tail feather ending in
a spine which is pressed against the chim-
ney side when the bird alights, thus
enabling it to cling more firmly. In this
fashion the swifts roost, practically hung
up against a wall.
The swift has a short beak and wide
mouth which it opens broadly to engulf
insects as it darts through the air. Chim-
ney swifts have been known to travel at the
rate of no miles an hour.
This bird should never be confused
with the swallows, for when flying, its
tail seems simply a sharp point, making the
whole body cigar-shaped. This character-
istic alone distinguishes it from the long-
tailed swallows. In color it is sooty brown,
with a gray throat and breast; the wings
are long and narrow and apparently
curved. The manner of flight and appear-
ance in the air make it resemble the bat
more than it does the swallow.
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Leaflets 13, 32, 33, and 49; Bird Stories,
by Edith M. Patch (Cliff Swallow); Bird
Stories from Burroughs, by John Bur-
roughs (Chimney Swift) ; First Lessons in
Nature Study, by Edith M. Patch (Cliff
Swallow, Bank Swallow); Holiday Pond,
by Edith M. Patch (Bank Swallow); Na-
ture and Science Readers, by Edith M.
Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book i,
Hunting (Bank Swallow), Book 2, Out-
door Visits (Bank Swallow, Tree Swal-
low), Book 3, Surprises (Tree Swallow),
Book 5, Science at Home (Cliff Swallow) ;
also, readings on pages 28-29.
LESSON 28
THE SWALLOWS AND SWIFTS
LEADING THOUGHT — The swallows are
very graceful birds and are exceedingly
swift fliers. They feed upon insects which
they catch upon the wing. There are five
native swallows which are common — the
eave, or cliff, the barn, the bank, the tree
swallow, and the purple martin. The
chimney swift, although often called so,
is not a swallow; it is more nearly related
to the hummingbird than to the swallows.
METHOD — The questions should be
given as an outline for observation, and
may be written on the blackboard or
placed in the field notebook. The pupils
should answer them individually and
from field observation. We s.:udy the
swifts and swallows together to teach the
pupils to distinguish them apart.
OBSERVATIONS — i. What is the gen-
eral shape of the swallow? What is the
color of the forehead, throat, upper breast,
neck, rump, and tail?
2. Is the tail noticeably forked, espe-
cially during flight?
ANIMALS
Leonard K. Beyer1
Nest of bank swallows. The bank has been
cut away so that the nest and eggs could be
photographed
3. Describe the flight of the swallow.
What are the purposes of its long, swift
flight? How are the swallow's wings fitted
for carrying the bird swiftly?
4. Describe the form of the beak of
the swallow. How does it get its food?
What is its food?
5. In what particular locations do
you see the swallows darting about?
At what time of day do they seem most
active?
6. Describe the swallow's legs and feet
and explain why they look so different
from those of the robin and blackbird.
THE EAVE OR CLIFF SWALLOW
7. Where do the eave swallows build
their nests? Of what material is the out-
side? The lining? Describe the shape of
the nest and how it is supported.
8. How early in the spring do the eave
swallows begin to make their nests?
Where and by what means do they get
the material for nest building? Are there
a number of nests usually grouped to-
gether?
9. Describe the eave swallow's egg.
Where do the parents sit when feeding
the young? What is the note of the eave
swallow?
10. What are the differences between
the barn and the eave swallow in color
and shape of tail?
THE BARN SWALLOW
11. Where does the barn swallow place
its nest? What is the shape of the nest?
Of what material is it made?
12. What is the color of the eggs? De-
scribe the feeding of the young and the
sounds made by them and their parents.
Do both parents work together to build
the nest and feed the young?
13. Is there usually more than one nest
in the same locality? When the young
swallows are large enough to leave the
nest, describe how the parents continue
to care for them.
14. Have you ever heard the barn swal-
lows sing? Describe their conversational
notes.
15. When do the barn swallows mi-
grate and where do they go during the
winter? How can you distinguish the barn
swallow from the eave swallow?
THE BANK SWALLOW
16. Where do the bank swallows build?
What sort of soil do they choose?
17. How does a bank which is tenanted
by these birds look?
18. How far do the bank swallows
tunnel into the earth? What is the di-
ameter of one of these tunnels? Do they
extend straight or do they rise or deflect?
A. A. Allen
Nest and eggs of tree swallows
BIRDS
19. With what tools is the tunnel exca-
vated? Where is the nest situated in the
tunnel and how is it lined?
115
25. Where did the martins build their
nests before America was civilized?
Where do thev like to nest now? How do
20. How can you distinguish this spe- the purple martins benefit us and how
cies from the barn and eave and tree
swallows? At what time do the bank swal-
lows leave us for migration south?
THE TREE SWALLOW
21. Where does the tree swallow make
its nest? How does its nest differ from
that of the barn? eave, or bank swallow?
When does it begin to build?
22. How can we encourage the tree
swallow to build near our houses? Why
is the tree swallow a much more desirable
bird to have in birdhouses than the Eng-
lish sparrow?
23. Describe the peculiar migrating
habits of the tree swallow. How can you
tell this species from the barn, the eave,
and the bank swallows?
THE PURPLE MARTIN
24. Compare the purple martin with
the swallows and describe how it differs in
size and color.
can wre induce them to come to us?
THE CHIMNEY SWIFT
26. Where do the chimney swifts
build their nests? Of what materials is the
nest made? What is its shape and how is
it supported? Where does the chimney
swift get the glue which it uses for nest
building?
27. Describe how the chimney swifts
enter their nesting place at night. Where
and how do they perch? Describe the
shape of the swift's tail and its use to the
bird when roosting.
28. On what does the chimney swift
feed and how does it procure this food?
Describe how its beak is especially fitted
for this.
29. How can you distinguish the chim-
ney swift from the swallows? In what re-
spect does the chimney swift resemble the
swallows? In what respects does it differ
from them?
THE HUMMINGBIRD
Formerly it was believed that this dain-
tiest of birds found the nectar of flowers
ample support for its active life; but the
later methods of discovering what birds
eat by examining the contents of their
stomachs, show that the hummingbird is
an insect eater of most ravenous appetite.
Not only does it catch insects in mid
air, but undoubtedly takes them while
they are feasting on the nectar of the
tubular flowers which the hummingbird
loves to visit. Incidentally, the humming-
bird carries some pollen for these flowers
and may be counted as a friend in every
respect, since usually the insects in the
nectaries of those flowers with long tubu-
lar corollas are stealing nectar without
giving in return any compensation to the
flower by carrying its pollen. Such insects
may be the smaller beetles, ants, and flies.
The adaptations of the hummingbird's
beak and long, double-tubed tongue, are
especially for securing this mingled diet
of insects and nectar. It is interesting to
note that the young hummingbirds have
the beak much shorter than the mature
birds. The hummingbird's beak is exactly
fitted to probe those flowers where the
bird finds its food. The tongue has the
outer edges curved over, making a tube on
each side. These tubes are provided with
minute brushes at the tips and thus are
fitted both for sucking nectar and for
sweeping up the insects.
The natural home of the hummingbird
seems to have been in the American trop-
ics. The male of our one species east of
the Rocky Mountains has a ruby throat.
This bird comes to us after a very long
journey each year. One species on the Pa-
n6
ANIMALS
The nest of the hummingbird is a
most exquisite structure; it is about three-
fourths of an inch in diameter on the in-
side and about half an inch deep. It is,
in shape, a symmetrical cup; the outside
is covered with lichens, so that it exactly
resembles the branch on which it rests;
the inside is lined with the down of plant
seeds and plant fibers. The lichens are
often fastened to the outside with the
A. A. Allen
Ruby -throated hummingbird turning her
eggs
cific Coast is known to travel three thou-
sand miles to the north for the summer
and back again in winter.
Hummingbirds are not supposed to
sing, but to use their voices for squeak-
ing when angry or frightened. However, I
once had the privilege of listening to a
true song by a hummingbird on the Pacific
Coast. The midget was perched upon a
twig and lifted up his voice with every
appearance of ecstasy in pouring forth his
lay. To my uncultured ear this song was
a fine, shrill, erratic succession of squeaks,
" as fine as a cambric needle/' said my
companion.
© General Biological Supply House, Chicago
Two young hummingbirds. They remain in
nest for about three weeks
© General Biological Supply House, Chicago
Not much larger than a walnut, the hum-
mingbird's nest looks like a knot on a branch
silk web of spiders or caterpillars. The nest
is usually saddled on a branch of a tree
from ten to fifty feet above the ground.
The eggs are two in number and white;
they look like tiny beans. The young are
black and look, at first glance, more like
insects than like birds.
SUGGESTED READING — American Bird
Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon
Bird Leaflet 56; Mother Nature Series,
by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell,
Book 3, In Field and Forest; Nature and
Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and
Harrison E. Howe, Book i, Hunting,
Book 5, Science at Home; also, readings
on pages 28-29.
LESSON 29
THE HUMMINGBIRD
LEADING THOUGHT — The humming-
bird in flight moves its wings so rapidly
that we cannot see them. It can hold itself
poised above flowers while it thrusts its
long beak into them for nectar and in-
sects.
METHOD — Give the questions to the
BIRDS
pupils and let them make the observations
when they have the opportunity.
OBSERVATIONS— i. Where did you
find the hummingbird? What flowers was
it visiting? At what time of day? Can you
tell whether it is a hummingbird or a
hawkmoth which is visiting the flowers?
At what time of day do the hawkmoths
appear?
2. Did you ever see the hummingbird
come to rest? Describe its actions while
resting.
117
3. What are the colors of the back,
throat, breast, and under parts? How do
you distinguish the mother hummingbird
from her mate?
4. How does the hummingbird act
when extracting the nectar? How does it
balance itself in front of a flower? Have
you ever seen hummingbirds catch insects
in the air? If so, describe how they did it.
5. Describe the hummingbird's nest.
How large is it in diameter? What is the
covering outside? With what is it lined?
THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD
The blackbirds are among our earliest
visitors in the spring; they come in flocks
and beset our leafless trees like punctua-
tion marks, meanwhile squeaking like mu-
sical wheelbarrows. What they are, where
they come from, where they are going and
what they are going to do, are the ques-
tions that naturally arise at the sight of
these sable flocks. It is not easy to distin-
guish grackles, cowbirds, and rusty black-
birds at a glance, but the redwing pro-
claims his identity from afar. The bright
red epaulets, margined behind with pale
yellow, make up a uniform which catches
the admiring eye. The bird's glossy black
plumage brings into greater contrast his
bright decorations. No one who has seen
his actions can doubt that he is fully
aware of his beauty: he comes sailing
down at the end of his strong, swift flight,
and balances himself on some bending
reed; then, dropping his long tail as if
it were the crank of his music box, and
holding both wings lifted to show his scar-
let decorations, he sings his " quong-quer-
ee-ee." Little wonder that such a hand-
some, military-looking fellow should be
able now and then to win more than
his share of feminine admiration. But
even though he become an entirely suc-
cessful bigamist or even trigamist, he has
proved himself to be a good protector
of each and all of his wives and nestlings;
however, he often has but one mate.
" The redwing flutes his O-ka-lee " is
Emerson's graphic description of the
sweet song of the redwing; he also has
many other notes. He clucks to his mates
and clucks more sharply when suspicious,
and has one alarm note that is truly alarm-
L
Male and female red-winged blackbirds
ing. The male redwings come from the
South in March; they appear in flocks7
often three weeks before their mates ar-
rive. The female looks as though she be-
longed to quite a different species. Al-
n8
ANIMALS
Nest and eggs of the red-winged blackbird
though her head and back are black, the
black is decidedly rusty; it is quite im-
possible to describe her, she is so incon-
spicuously speckled with brown, black,
whitish buff, and orange. Most of us never
recognize her unless we see her with her
spouse. She probably does most of the
nest building, and her suit of salt, pepper,
and mustard renders her invisible to the
keen eyes of birds of prey. Only when she
is flying does she show her blackbird char-
acteristics — her tail being long and of ob-
vious use as a steering organ; and she walks
with long, stiff strides. The redwings are
ever to be found in and about swamps
and marshes. The nest is usually built in
May; it is made of grasses and stalks of
weeds and is lined with finer grass or
reeds. It is bulky and is placed in low
bushes or among the reeds. The eggs are
pale blue, streaked and spotted with
purple or black. The young resemble the
mother in color, the males being obliged
to wait a year for their epaulets. As to
the food of the redwings here in the
North, Mr. Forbush has said:
" Although the red-wings almost invari-
ably breed in the swamp or marsh, they
have a partiality for open fields and
plowed lands; however, most of the black-
birds that nest in the smaller swamps ad-
jacent to farm lands get a large share of
their food from the farmer's fields. They
forage about the fields and meadows when
they first come north in the spring. Later,
they follow the plow, picking up grubs,
worms and caterpillars; and should there
be an outbreak of canker-worms in the or-
chard, the blackbirds will fly at least half
a mile to get canker-worms for their young.
Wilson estimated that the red-wings of
the United States would in four months
destroy sixteen thousand two hundred
A. A. Allen
The mother arrives with food for her young
million larvas. They eat the caterpillars of
the gypsy moth, the forest tent-caterpillar,
and other hairy larvae. They are among
the most destructive birds to weevils, click
beetles, and wire-worms. Grasshoppers,
ants, bugs, and flies form a portion of the
red-wing's food. They eat comparatively
little grain in Massachusetts although they
get some from newly sown fields in spring,
as well as from the autumn harvest; but
they feed very largely on the seeds of
weeds and wild rice in the fall. In the
BIRDS
119
South they join with the bobolink in
devastating the rice fields, and in the
West they are often so numerous as to
destroy the grain in the fields; but here [in
the North and East] the good they do far
outweighs the injury, and for this reason
they are protected by law."
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Leaflet 25; also, readings on pages 28-29.
LESSON 30
THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD
LEADING THOUGHT — The red-winged
blackbird lives in the marshes where it
builds its nest. However, it comes over
to our plowed lands and pastures and
helps the farmer by destroying many in-
sects which injure the meadows, crops,
and trees.
METHOD — The observations should be
made by the pupils individually in the
field. These birds may be looked for in
flocks early in the spring, but the study
should be made in May or June when they
will be found in numbers in almost any
swamp. The questions may be given to the
pupils a few at a time or written in their
field notebooks and the answers discussed
when discovered.
OBSERVATIONS — i . How can you dis-
tinguish the red-winged blackbird from
all other blackbirds? Where is the red
on his wings? Is there any other color be-
sides black on the wings? Where? What
is the color of the rest of the plumage of
this bird?
2. What is there peculiar in the flight
of the redwing? Is its tail long or short?
How does it use its tail in flight? What is
its position when the bird alights on a
reed?
3. What is the song of the redwing?
Describe the way he holds his wings and
tail when singing, balanced on a reed or
some other swamp grass. Does he show off
his epaulets when singing? What note
does he give when he is surprised or sus-
picious? When frightened?
4. When does the redwing first appear
in the spring? Does he come alone or in
flocks? Does his mate come with him?
Where do the redwings winter? In what
localities do the red-winged blackbirds
live? Why do they live there? What is the
color of the mother redwing? Would you
know by her looks that she was a black-
bird? What advantage is it to the pair
that the female is so dull in color?
5. At what time do these birds nest?
Where is the nest built? Of what ma-
terial? How is it concealed? What is the
color of the eggs?
6. Do the young birds resemble in color
their father or their mother? Why is this
an advantage?
7. Is the redwing ever seen in fields
adjoining the marshes? What is he doing
there? Does he walk or hop when looking
for food? What is the food of the red-
wings? Do they ever damage grain? Do
they not protect grain more than they
damage it?
8. What great good do the redwings
do for forest trees? For orchards?
9. At what time in the summer do the
redwings disappear from the swamps?
Where do they gather in flocks? Where
is their special feeding ground on the way
south for the winter?
120
ANIMALS
The Baltimore oriole
THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE
I know his name, I know his note,
That so with rapture takes my soul;
Like flame the gold beneath his throat,
His glossy cope is black as coal.
O Oriole, it is the song
You sang me from the cottonwood,
Too young to feel that I was young,
Too glad to guess if life were good.
— WILLIAM DEAN HOWELLS
Dangling from the slender, drooping
branches of the elm in winter, these
pocket nests look like some strange per-
sistent fruit; and, indeed, they are the
fruit of much labor on the part of the
oriole weavers, those skilled artisans of
the bird world. Sometimes the oriole
" For the summer voyage his hammock
swings " in a sapling, placing it near the
main stem and near the top; otherwise it
is almost invariably hung at the end of
branches and is rarely less than twenty
feet from the ground. The nest is pocket-
shaped, and usually about seven inches
long, and four and a half inches wide at
the largest part, which is the bottom. The
top is attached to forked twigs at the Y
so that the mouth or door will be kept
open to allow the bird to pass in and out;
when within, the weight of the bird
causes the opening to contract somewhat
and protects the inmate from prying eyes.
Often the pocket hangs free so that the
breezes may rock it, but in one case we
found a nest with the bottom stayed to
a twig by guy lines. The bottom is much
more closely woven than the upper part
for a very good reason, since the open
meshes admit air to the sitting bird. The
nest is lined with hair or other soft ma-
terial, and although this is added last, the
inside of the nest is woven first. The ori-
BIRDS
121
oles like to build the framework of twine,
and it is marvelous how they will loop this
around a twig almost as evenly knotted as
if crocheted; in and out of this net the
mother bird with her long, sharp beak
weaves bits of wood fiber, strong, fine
grass, and scraps of weeds. The favorite
lining is horsehair, which simply cushions
the bottom of the pocket. Dr". Detwiler
had a pet oriole which built her nest of
his hair, which she pulled from his head;
is it possible that orioles get their supply
of horsehair in a similar way? If we put
bright-colored twine or narrow ribbons in
convenient places, the orioles will weave
them into the nest, but the strings should
not be long lest the birds become entan-
gled. If the nest is strong the birds may
use it a second year.
That Lord Baltimore found in new
America a bird wearing his colors must
have cheered him greatly; and it is well
for us that this brilliant bird brings to our
minds kindly thoughts of that tolerant,
high-minded English nobleman. The ori-
ole's head, neck, throat, and part of the
back are black; the wings are black but the
feathers are margined with white; the tail
is black except that the ends of the outer
feathers are yellow; all the rest of the bird
is golden orange, a luminous color which
makes him seem a splash of brilliant sun-
shine. The female, although marked much
the same, has the back so dull and mot-
tled that it looks olive-brown; the rump,
breast, and under parts are yellow but by
no means showy. The advantage of these
quiet colors to the mother bird is obvious,
since it is she that makes the nest and
sits in it without attracting attention to
its location. In fact, when she is sitting,
her brilliant mate places himself far
enough away to distract the attention of
meddlers, yet near enough for her to see
the flash of his breast in the sunshine and
to hear his rich and cheering song. He
is a good spouse and brings her the ma-
terials for the nest which she weaves in,
hanging head downward from a twig and
using her long sharp beak for a shuttle.
And his glorious song is for her alone.
Some hold that no two orioles have the
C. R. Crosby
An oriole's nest, anchored to the windward
same song, and I know of two individuals
at least whose songs were sung by no other
birds: one gave a phrase from the Wald-
vogel's song in Siegfried; the other whis-
tled over and over, " Sweet birdie, hello,
hello/7 The orioles can chatter and scold
as well as sing.
The oriole is a brave defender of his
nest and a most devoted father, working
hard to feed his ever-hungry nestlings; we
can hear these hollow mites peeping for
more food, " Tee dee dee, tee dee dee/7
shrill and constant, if we stop for a mo-
ment under the nest in June. The young
birds dress in the safe colors of the mother,
the males not donning their bright plum-
age until the second year. A brilliant col-
ored fledgling would not live long in a
world where sharp eyes are in constant
quest for little birds to fill empty stom-
achs.
The food of the oriole places it among
our most beneficial birds, since it is al-
ways ready to cope with the hairy cater-
pillars avoided by most birds; it has learned
to abstract the caterpillar from his spines
and is thus able to swallow him minus his
122
ANIMALS
Young orioles just out of the nest
" whiskers/' The orioles are waging a great
war against the terrible brown-tail and
gypsy moths; they also eat click beetles
and many other noxious insects. Once
when we were breeding big caterpillars in
the Cornell University Insectary, an oriole
came in through the open windows of
Leonard K. Beyer
An orchard oriole
the greenhouse, and thinking he had
found a bonanza proceeded to work it,
carrying off our precious crawlers before
we discovered what was happening.
The orioles winter in Central America
and give us scarcely four months of their
company. They do not usually appear be-
fore May and leave in early September.
SUGGESTED READING — American Bird
Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon
Bird Leaflet 26; Bird-House to Let, by
Mary F. Terrel; Bird Stories from Bur-
roughs, by John Burroughs; Nature and
Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and
Harrison E. Howe, Book 2, Outdoor
Visits; Pathways in Science, by Gerald S.
Craig and Co-authors, Book 3, Our Wide,
Wide World; also, readings on pages 28-
29.
LESSON 31
THE ORIOLE
LEADING THOUGHT — The oriole is the
most skillful of all our bird architects.
It is also one of our prized song birds
and is very beneficial to the farmer and the
fruit grower because of the insect pests
which it destroys.
METHOD — Begin during winter or
early spring with a study of the nest, which
may be obtained from the elms of the
roadsides. During the first week in May,
give the questions concerning the birds
and their habits. Let the pupils keep the
questions in their notebooks and answer
them when they have opportunity. The
BIRDS
123
observations should be summed up once
a week.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Where did you
find the nest? On what species of tree?
Was it near the trunk of the tree or the
tip of the branch?
2. What is the shape of the nest? How
long is it? How wide? Is the opening as
large as the bottom of the nest? How is
it hung to the twigs so that the opening
remains open and does not pull together
with the weight of the bird at the bottom?
Is the bottom of the nest stayed to a
twig or does it hang loose?
3. With what material and how is the
nest fastened to the branches? Of what
material is the outside made? How is it
woven together? Is it more loosely woven
at the top than at the bottom? How many
kinds of material can you find in the out-
side of the nest?
4. With what is the nest lined? How
far up is it lined? With what tool was the
nest woven? If you put out bright-colored
bits of ribbon and string do you think
the orioles will use them? Why should
you not put out long strings?
5. At what date did you first see the
Baltimore oriole? Why is it called the
Baltimore oriole? How many other names
has it? Describe in the following way the
colors of the male oriole: top of head,
back, wings, tail, throat, breast, under
parts. What are the colors of his mate?
How would it endanger the nest and nest-
lings if the mother bird were as bright
colored as the father bird?
6. Which weaves the nest, the father
or the mother bird? Does the former as-
sist in any way in nest building?
7. Where does the father bird stay and
what does he do while the mother bird
is sitting on the eggs?
8. What is the oriole's song? Has he
more than one song? What other notes
has he? After the young birds hatch, does
the father bird help take care of them?
9. By the middle of June the young
birds are usually hatched; if you know
where an oriole nest is hung, listen and
describe the call of the nestlings for food.
10. Which parent do the young birds
resemble in their colors? Why is this a
benefit?
11. What is the oriole's food? How is
the oriole of benefit to us in ways in which
other birds are not?
12. Do the orioles use the same nest
two years in succession? How long does
the oriole stay in the North? Where does
it spend its winters?
Hush/ 'tis he/
My oriole, my glance of summer fire,
Is come at last, and, ever on the watch,
Twitches the packthread I had lightly
wound
About the bough to help his house-
keeping, —
Twitches and scouts by turns, blessing his
luck,
Yet fearing me who laid it in his way,
Nor, more than wiser we in our affairs,
Divines the Providence that hides and
helps.
Heave, ho! Heave, ho/ he whistles as the
twine
Slackens its hold; once more, now/ and a
flash
Lightens across the sunlight to the elm
Where his mate dangles at her cup of felt.
— " UNDER THE WILLOWS/' LOWELL
ANIMALS
THE CROW
Thoreau says: " What a perfectly New
England sound is this voice of the crow!
If you stand still anywhere in the out-
skirts of the town and listen, this is per-
haps the sound which you will be most
sure to hear, rising above all sounds of
human industry and leading your thoughts
to some far-away bay in the woods. The
bird sees the white man come and the
Indian withdraw, but it withdraws not.
Its untamed voice is still heard above the
tinkling of the forge. It sees a race pass
away, but it passes not away. It remains
to remind us of aboriginal nature/7
The crow is probably the most intelli-
gent of all our native birds. It is quick to
learn and clever in action, as many a
farmer will testify who has tried to keep
it out of corn fields with various devices,
the harmless character of which the crow
soon understood perfectly. Of all our
birds, this one has the longest list of vir-
tues and of sins, as judged from our stand-
point; but we should listen to both sides
of the case before we pass judgment. I
find with crows, as with people, that I like
some more than I do others. I do not like
at all the cunning old crow which steals
the suet I put on the trees in winter for
the chickadees and nuthatches; and I have
hired a boy with a shotgun to protect the
eggs and nestlings of the robins and other
birds in my neighborhood from the rav-
ages of one or two cruel old crows that
have developed the nest-hunting habit.
On the other hand, I became a sincere
admirer of a crow flock which worked in
a field close to my country home, and I
have been the chosen friend of several
tame crows who were even more inter-
esting than they were mischievous.
The crow is larger than any other of
our common black birds; the northern
raven is still larger, but is very rarely seen.
Although the crow's feathers are black,
yet in the sunlight a beautiful purple iri-
descence plays over the plumage, espe-
cially about the neck and back; it has a
compact but not ungraceful body, and
long, powerful wings; its tail is medium
sized and is not notched at the end; its
feet are long and strong; the track shows
BIRDS
three toes directed forward and one long
one directed backward. The crow does
not sail through the air as does the hawk,
but progresses with an almost constant
flapping of the wings. Its beak is very
strong and is used for tearing the flesh
of its prey and for defense, and in fact
for almost anything that a beak could be
used for; its eye is all black and is very
keen and intelligent. When hunting for
food in the field, it usually walks, but
sometimes hops. The raven and the fish
crows are the nearest relatives of the
American crow, and next to them the jays.
We should hardly think that the blue jay
and the crow were related to look at them,
but when we come to study their habits,
much is to be found in common.
The crow's nest is usually very large; it
is made of sticks, of grape vines and bark,
sod, horsehair, moss, and grasses. It is
placed in trees or in tall bushes rarely less
than twenty feet from the ground. The
eggs are pale bluish green or nearly white
with brownish markings. The young crows
hatch in April or May. Both parents are
devoted in the care of the young, and
remain with them during most of the
summer. I have often seen a mother crow
feeding her young ones which were fol-
lowing her with obstreperous caws, al-
though they were as large as she.
While the note of the crow is harsh
Herbert E. Gray
A crow's nest and eggs
Young crows are a noisy lot
when close at hand, it has a musical qual-
ity in the distance. Mr. Mathews says:
" The crow when he sings is nothing short
of a clown; he ruffles his feathers, stretches
his neck, like a cat with a fish bone in
her throat, and with a most tremen-
dous effort delivers a series of hen-like
squawks." But aside from his caw, the
crow has some very seductive soft notes.
I have held long conversations with two
pet crows, talking with them in a high,
soft tone, and finding that they answered
readily in a like tone in a most responsive
way. I have also heard these same tones
among the wild crows when they were
talking together; one note is a guttural
tremolo, most grotesque.
Crows gather in flocks for the winter;
these flocks number from fifty to several
hundred individuals, all having a common
roosting place, usually in pine or hemlock
forests or among other evergreens. They
go out from these roosts during the day
to get food, often making a journey of
many miles. During the nesting season
they scatter in pairs, and they do not
gather again in flocks until the young are
fully grown.
When crows are feeding in the fields
there is usually, if not always, a sentinel
posted on some high point so that he can
give warning of danger. This sentinel is
126
ANIMALS
Verne Morton
The story of a take-off. With the third wing
beat the crow is away
an experienced bird and is keen to detect
a dangerous from a harmless intruder. I
once made many experiments with these
sentinels; I finally became known to those
of a particular flock and I was allowed
to approach within a few yards of where
the birds were feeding, a privilege not ac-
corded to any other person in the neigh-
borhood.
The crow is a general feeder and will
eat almost any food; generally, however,
it finds its food upon the ground. The
food given to nestlings is very largely in-
sects, and many pests are thus destroyed.
The crows do harm to the farmer by pull-
ing the sprouting com and by destroying
the eggs and young of poultry. They also
do much harm by destroying the eggs and
nestlings of other birds which are bene-
ficial to the farmer; they also do some
harm by distributing the seeds of poison
ivy and other noxious plants. All these
must be set down in the account against
the crow, but on the credit side must be
placed the fact that it does a tremendous
amount of good work for the farmer by
eating injurious insects, especially the
grubs and cutworms which work in the
ground, destroying the roots of grasses
and grains. It also kills many mice and
other rodents which are destructive to
crops.
One of the best methods of preventing
crows from taking sprouting com is to
treat the seed corn with some strong-
smelling substance, such as tar.
If any of the pupils in your school have
had any experience with tame crows they
will relate interesting examples of the
love of the crow for glittering objects.
I once knew a tame crow which stole all
of the thimbles in the house and buried
them in the garden; he would watch
for a thimble to be laid aside when the
sewing was dropped, and would seize it
almost immediately. This same crow per-
sisted in taking the clothespins off the
line and burying them, so that he was
finally imprisoned on wash-clays. He was
fond of playing marbles with a little boy
of the family. The boy would shoot a
marble into a hole and then Billy, the
crow, would take a marble in his beak
and drop it into the hole. The bird seemed
to understand the game and was highly
indignant if the boy played out of turn
and made shots twice in succession.
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Leaflet 77; Bird Stories, by Edith M.
Patch; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by
John Burroughs; The Crow in its Relation
to Agriculture, by E. R. Kalmbach (U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bul-
letin 1102); Our Baclcdoor Neighbors, by
Frank C. Pellett; The Pet Boole, by Anna
B. Comstock; The Stir of Nature, by
William H. Carr (Cleo and Mark);
Wild Animals I Have Known, by Er-
nest Thompson Seton; also, readings on
pages 28-29.
LESSON 32
THE CROW
LEADING THOUGHT — The crow has the
keenest intelligence of all our common
birds. It does good work for us and also
does damage. We should study its ways
before we pronounce judgment, for in
some localities it may be a true friend and
in others an enemy.
METHOD — This work should begin in
winter with an effort on the part of the
BIRDS
127
boys to discover the food of the crows
while snow is on the ground. This is a
good time to study their habits and their
roosts. The nests are also often seen in
winter, although usually built in ever-
greens. The nesting season is in early
April, and the questions about the nests
should be given then. Let the other ques-
tions be given when convenient. The
flight, the notes, the sentinels, the food,
the benefit and damage may all be taken
as separate topics.
The following topics may be given to
correlate with work in English: "What
a pet crow of my acquaintance did ";
" Evidences of crow intelligence "; " A
plea a crow might make in self-defense to
the farmer who wished to shoot him ";
" The best methods of preventing crows
from stealing planted corn."
OBSERVATIONS — i. How large is the
crow compared with other black birds?
2. Describe its colors when seen in the
sunlight.
3. Describe the general shape of the
crow.
4. Are its wings long and slender or
short and stout?
5. Is the tail long or short? Is it notched
or straight across the end?
6. Describe the crow's feet. Are they
large and strong or slender? How many
toes does the track show in the snow or
mud? How many are directed forward and
how many backward?
7. Describe a crow's flight compared
with that of the hawk.
8. Describe its beak and what it is used
for.
9. What is the color of the crow's eye?
10. When hunting for food does the
crow hop or walk?
11. Which are the crow's nearest rela-
tives?
12. Where and of what material do
the crows build their nests?
13. Describe the eggs. At what time of
the year do the young crows hatch? Do
both parents take care of and feed the
young? How long do the parents care for
the young after they leave the nest?
14. What are the notes of the crow? If
you have heard one give any note besides
" caw," describe it.
15. Where and how do crows live in
winter? Where do they live in summer?
16. Do they post sentinels if they are
feeding in the fields? If so, describe the ac-
tion of the sentinel on the approach of
people.
17. Upon what do the crows feed?
What is fed to the nestlings?
18. How do the crows work injury to
the farmer? How do they benefit the
farmer? Do you think they do more bene-
fit than harm to the farmer and fruit-
grower?
19. Have you known of instances of
the crow's fondness for shining or glitter-
ing articles, like pieces of crockery or tin?
THE CARDINAL GROSBEAK
There never lived a Lord Cardinal who
possessed robes of state more brilliant in
color than the plumage of this bird. By
the way, I wonder how many of us ever
think when we see the peculiar red called
cardinal, that it gained its name from the
dress of this high functionary of the
church? The cardinal grosbeak is the best
name for the redbird because that de-
scribes it exactly, both as to its color and
its chief characteristic, since its beak is
thick and large; the beak is also red, which
is a rare color in beaks, and in order to
make its redness more emphatic it is set
in a frame of black feathers. The use of
such a large beak is unmistakable, for it
is strong enough to crush the hardest of
seed shells or to crack the hardest and dri-
est of grains.
What cheer/ What cheer!
That is the grosbeak's way,
With his sooty face and his coat of red
sings Maurice Thompson. Besides the
name given above, this bird has been
128
ANIMALS
After Audubon Leaflet 18
The cardinal grosbeak
called in different localities the redbird,
Virginia redbird, crested redbird, winter
redbird, Virginia nightingale, the red
corn-cracker; but it remained for James
Lane Allen to give it another name in his
masterpiece, The Kentucky Cardinal.
The cardinal is a trifle smaller than the
robin and is by no means slim and grace-
ful, like the catbird or the scarlet tanager,
but is quite stout and is a veritable chunk
of brilliant color and bird dignity. The
only bird that rivals him in redness is the
scarlet tanager, which has black wings; the
summer tanager is also a red bird, but is
not so vermilion and is more slender and
lacks the crest. The cardinal surely finds
his crest useful in expressing his emotions;
when all is serene, it lies back flat on the
head, but with any excitement, whether
of joy or surprise or anger, it lifts until it
is as peaked as an old-fashioned nightcap.
The cardinal's mate is of quiet color; her
back is greenish gray and her breast buffy,
while her crest, wings, and tail reflect in
faint ways the brilliancy of his costume.
The redbird's song is a stirring succes-
sion of syllables uttered in a rich, ringing
tone, and may be translated in a variety of
ways. I have heard him sing a thousand
times " tor-re'-do, tor-re'-do, tor-re'-do/'
but Dr. Dawson has heard him sing " che'-
pew, che'-pew, we'-woo, we'-woo ";
" bird-ie, bird-ie, bird-ie; tschew, tschew,
tschew "; and " chit-e-kew, chit-e-kew; he-
weet, he-weet." His mate breaks the cus-
tom of other birds of her sex and sings a
sweet song, somewhat softer than his.
Both birds utter a sharp note " tsip, tsip."
The nest is built in bushes, vines, or low
trees, often in holly, laurel, or other low
evergreens, and is rarely more than six or
eight feet above the ground. It is made of
twigs, weed stems, tendrils, the bark of the
grapevine, and coarse grass; it is lined with
fine grass and rootlets; it is rather loosely
constructed but firm and is well hidden,
for it causes these birds great anguish to
have their nest discovered. Three or four
eggs are laid, which are bluish white or
grayish, dully marked with brown. The
father cardinal is an exemplary husband
and father; he cares for and feeds his mate
tenderly and sings to her gloriously while
she is sitting; and he works hard catching
insects for the nestlings. He is also a brave
defender of his nest and will attack any
intruder, however large, with undaunted
courage. The fledglings have the dull color
of the mother and have dark-colored bills.
Until the young birds are able to take care
of themselves, their dull color somewhat
protects them from the keen eyes of their
enemies. If the male fledglings were the
color of their father, probably not one
would escape a tragic death. While the
mother bird is hatching the second
Leonard K. Beyer
The cardinal builds its nest in thick bushes or
vines
BIRDS
brood, the father keeps the first brood
with him and cares for them; often
the whole family remains together during
the winter, making a small flock. How-
ever, the flocking habit is not characteris-
tic of these birds, and we only see them in
considerable numbers when the exigencies
of seeking food in the winter naturally
bring them together.
The cardinals are fond of the shrubbery
and thickets of river bottoms near grain
fields, or where there is plenty of wild
grass, and they only visit our premises
when driven to us by winter hunger. Their
food consists of the seeds of rank weeds,
corn, wheat, rye, oats, beetles, grasshop-
pers, flies, and to some extent, wild and
garden berries; but they never occur in
sufficient numbers to be a menace to our
crops. The cardinals may often be seen in
the cornfields after the harvest, and will
husk an overlooked ear of corn and crack
the kernels with their beaks in a most
dexterous manner. During the winter we
may coax them to our grounds by scatter-
ing corn in some place not frequented by
cats; thus, we may induce them to nest
near us, since the cardinal is not naturally
a migrant but likes to stay in one locality
summer and winter. It has been known to
come as far north as Boston and southern
New York, but it is found in greatest
numbers in our Southern states.
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Leaflet 18; also, readings on pages 28-29.
LESSON 33
THE CARDINAL GROSBEAK
LEADING THOUGHT — The cardinal is
the most brilliantly colored of all our
birds, and one of our most cheerful sing-
ers. We should seek to preserve it as a
beautiful ornament to our groves and
grounds.
METHOD — This work must be done
by personal observation in the field. The
field notes should be discussed in school.
OBSERVATIONS — i . Do you know the
cardinal? Why is it so called?
2. How many names do you know for
this bird?
Leonard "K. Beyer
The cardinal sings a beautiful song
3. Is the cardinal as large as the robin?
Is it graceful in shape?
4. Is there any color except red upon it?
If so? where?
5. What other vividly red birds have
we and how can we distinguish them from
the cardinal?
6. Describe the cardinal's crest and how
it looks when lifted. Why do you think it
lifts it?
7. Describe its beak as to color, shape,
and size. What work is such a heavy beak
made for?
8. Is the cardinal's mate the same color
as he? Describe the color of her head,
back, wings, tail, breast,
9. Can you imitate the cardinal's song?
What words do you think he seems to
sing? Does his mate sing also? Is it usual
for mother birds to sing? What other
notes besides songs do you hear him utter?
10. Where does the cardinal usually
build its nest? How high from the
ground? Of what materials? Is it compact
or bulky? How many eggs are there and
what are their colors?
11. How does the father bird act while
his mate is brooding? How does he help
take care of the young in the nest?
12. How do the fledglings differ in color
from their father? From their mother? Of
what use to the young birds is their sober
color?
130
ANIMALS
13. What happens to the fledglings of
the first brood while the mother is hatch-
ing the eggs of the second brood?
14. In what localities do you most often
see the cardinals? Do you ever see them in
flocks?
15. What is the food of the cardinals?
What do they feed their nestlings?
16. Flow can you induce the cardinals
to build near your home?
17. What do you know about the laws
protecting birds? Why should such laws
be observed?
Along the dust-white river road.
The saucy redbird chirps and trills;
His liquid notes resound and rise
Until they meet the cloudless skies,
And echo o'er the distant hills.
— NAYLOR
GEESE
To be called a goose should be con-
sidered most complimentary, for of all the
birds the goose is probably the most intel-
ligent. An observant lady who keeps geese
on her farm assures me that no animal, not
even dog or horse, has the intelligence of
the goose. She says that these birds learn
a lesson after a few repetitions, and surely
Canada geese in a field of grain
her geese were patterns of obedience.
While I was watching them one morning,
they started for the brook via the corn-
field; she called to them sharply, " No, no,
you mustn't go that way! " They stopped
and conferred; she spoke again and they
waited, looking at her as if to make up
their minds to this exercise of self-sacrifice;
but when she spoke the third time they
left the cornfield and took the other
path to the brook. She could bring her
geese into their house at any time of day
by calling to them, " Home, home! " As
soon as they heard these words, they
would start and not stop until the last one
was housed.
In ancient Greece maidens made pets of
geese; and often there was such a devotion
between the bird and the girl that when
the latter died her statue with that of the
goose was carved on her burial tablet. The
loyalty of a pet goose came under the ob-
servation of Miss Ada Georgia. A lone
gander was the special pet of a small boy
in Elmira, New York, who took sole care
of him. The bird obeyed commands like
a dog but would never let his little master
out of his sight if he could avoid it; occa-
sionally he would appear in the school
yard, where the pupils would tease him
by pretending to attack his master at the
risk of being so severely whipped with
the bird's wings that it was a test of
bravery among the boys so to challenge
him. His fidelity to his master was ex-
treme; once when the boy was ill in bed,
the bird wandered about the yard honking
disconsolately and refused to eat; he was
driven to the side of the house where his
master could look from the window and
he immediately cheered up, took his food,
and refused to leave his post beneath the
window while the illness lasted.
The goose is a stately bird whether on
land or water; its long legs give it good pro-
portions when walking, and the neck, be-
ing so much longer than that of the duck,
gives an appearance of grace and dignity.
The duck on the other hand is beautiful
BIRDS 131
only when on the water or on the wing; ciple of a propeller; but when swimming
its short legs, placed far back and far out at around in the pond she uses them at al-
the sides, make it a most ungraceful most right angles to the body. Although
walker. The beak of the goose is harder in they are such excellent oars they are also
texture and is not flat like the duck's; no efficient on land; when running, her body
wonder the bird was a favorite with the an- may waddle somewhat, but her head and
cient Greeks, for the high ridge from the neck are held aloft in stately dignity,
beak to the forehead resembles the fa- The Toulouse are our common gray
mous Grecian nose. The plumage of geese geese; the Embdens are pure white with
orange bill and bright blue eyes. The Afri-
can geese have a black head with a large
black knob on the base of the black bill;
is very beautiful and abundant and for
this reason they are profitable domestic
birds. They are picked late in summer 7
when the feathers are nearly ready to be the neck is long, snakelike, light gray, with'
molted; at this time the geese flap their a dark stripe down the back; the wings and
wings often and set showers of loose feath- tail are dark gray; there is a dewlap at the
ers flying. A stocking or a bag is slipped throat. The brown Chinese geese have
s^fm*- J-~U ^ "U.J_,J'«T 1 1 _1 . • • i i 11 11 i f 11 it -. -
over the bird's head and she is turned
breast side up with her head firmly be-
tween the knees or under the arm of the
picker. The tips of the feathers are seized
with the fingers and come out easily; only
the breast, the under parts, and the feath-
also a black beak and a black knob at the
base of the bill. The neck is light brown
with a dull yellowish stripe down the
neck. The back is dark brown; breast,
wings, and tail are grayish brown. The
white Chinese are shaped like the brown
ers beneath the wings are plucked. Geese Chinese, but the knob and bill are orange
do not seem to suffer while being plucked and the eyes light blue,
except through the temporary inconven-
ience and ignominy of having their heads
thrust into a bag; their dignity is hurt
more than their bodies.
The wings of geese are very large and
beautiful; although our domestic geese
have lost their powers of flight to a great
extent, yet they often stretch their wings
and take little flying hops, teetering along
as if they can scarcely keep on earth; this
must surely be reminiscent of the old in-
stinct for traveling in the skies. The tail
of the goose is a half circle and is spread
when flying; although it is short, it seems
to be sufficiently long to act as a rudder.
The legs of the goose are much longer
than those of the duck; they are not set so
far back toward the rear of the body, and
therefore the goose is the much better
runner of the two. The track made by the
goose's foot is a triangle with two scallops
on one side made by the webs between the
three front toes; the hind toe is placed
high up; the foot and the unfeathered por-
tion of the leg, protected by scales, are
used as oars when the bird is swimming.
When she swims forward rapidly, her feet
extend out behind her and act on the prin-
THE HABITS OF GEESE
Geese are monogamous and are loyal
to their mates. Old-fashioned people de-
clare that they choose their mates on Saint
Valentine's Day, but this is a pretty myth;
when once mated, the pair live together
year after year until one dies; an interest-
ing instance of this is one of the traditions
in my own family. A fine pair of geese
belonging to my pioneer grandfather had
been mated for several years and had
reared handsome families; but one spring
a conceited young gander fell in love with
the old goose, and as he was young and
lusty, he whipped her legitimate lord and
master and triumphantly carried her away,
although she was manifestly disgusted
with this change in her domestic fortunes.
The old gander sulked and refused to be
comforted by the blandishments of any
young goose whatever. Later the old pair
disappeared from the farmyard and the
upstart gander was left wifeless. It was in-
ferred that the old couple had run away
with each other into the encompassing
wilderness and much sympathy was felt
for them because of this sacrifice of their
132
ANIMALS
lives for loyalty. However, this was mis-
placed sentiment, for later in the summer
the happy pair was discovered in a distant
" slashing " with a fine family of goslings,
and all were brought home in triumph.
The old gander, while not able to cope
with his rival, was still able to trounce
any of the animal marauders which ap-
proached his home and family.
The goose lines her nest with down and
the soft feathers which she plucks from her
breast. The gander is very devoted to his
goose while she is sitting; he talks to her
in gentle tones and is fierce in her defense.
The eggs are about twice as large as those
of the hen and have the ends more
A. A. Allen
A pair of Canada geese. While one broods the
eggs the other stands guard
rounded. The period of incubation is four
weeks. The goslings are beautiful little
creatures, covered with soft down, and
have large, bright eyes. The parents give
them most careful attention from the first.
One family which I studied consisted of
the parents and eighteen goslings. The
mother was a splendid African bird; she
walked with dignified step, her graceful
neck assuming serpentine curves; and she
always carried her beak "lifted/' which
gave her an appearance of majestic haugh-
tiness. The father was just a plebeian
white gander, probably of Embden de-
scent, but he was a most efficient pro-
tector. The family always formed a proces-
sion in going to the creek, the majestic
mother at .the head, the goslings following
her and the gander bringing up the rear to
be sure there were no stragglers; if a gos-
ling strayed away or fell behind, the male
went after it, pushing it back into the
family circle. When entering the coop at
night he pushed the little ones in gently
with his bill; when the goslings took their
first swim, both parents gently pushed
them into the water, " rooted them in,"
as the farmer said. Any attempt to take
liberties with the brood was met with
bristling anger and defiance on the part of
the gander; the mistress of the farm told
me that he had whipped her black and
blue when she tried to interfere with the
goslings.
The gander and goose always show sus-
picion and resentment by opening the
mouth wide and making a hissing noise,
showing the whole round tongue in
mocking defiance. When the gander at-
tacks, he thrusts his head forward, even
with or below the level of his back, seizes
his victim firmly with his hard, toothed
bill so that it cannot get away, and then
with his strong wings beats the life out of
it. I remember vividly a whipping which a
gander gave me when I was a child, hold-
ing me fast by the blouse while he laid on
the blows.
Geese feed much more largely upon
land vegetation than do ducks; a good
growth of clover and grass makes excellent
pasture for them; in the water, they feed
upon water plants but do not eat insects
and animals to any extent.
Undoubtedly goose language is varied
and expresses many things. Geese talk to
each other and call from afar; they shriek
in warning and in general make such a
turmoil that people do not enjoy it. The
goslings, even when almost grown, keep
up a constant " pee wee, pee wee," which
is nerve-racking. There is a good oppor-
tunity for some interesting investigations
in studying out just what the different
notes of the geese mean.
The goose is very particular about her
toilet; she cleans her breast and back and
beneath her wings with her bill; and she
cleans her bill with her foot; she also
cleans the top of her head with her foot
and the under side of her wing with the
foot of that side. When oiling her feath-
ers, she starts the oil gland flowing with
her beak, then rubs her head over the
gland until it is well oiled; she then uses
her head as a " dauber " to apply the oil
BIRDS 133
to the feathers of her back and breast.
When thus polishing her feathers, she
twists the head over and over and back and
forth to add to its efficiency.
The Jack Miner Migratory Bird Foundation, Inc.
One corner of Jack Miner's Bird Sanctuary, Kingsville, Ontario, Canada, where Canada
geese find food, shelter } and protection
WILD GEESE
There is a sound, that, to the weather-
wise farmer, means cold and snow, even
though it is heard through the hazy atmos-
phere of an Indian summer day; and that
is the honking of wild geese as they pass
on their southward journey. And there is'
not a more interesting sight anywhere in
the autumn landscape than the wedge-
shaped flock of these long-necked birds
with their leader at the front apex. " The
wild goose trails his harrow/' sings the
poet; but only the aged can remember
the old-fashioned harrow which makes this
simile graphic. The honking which reveals
to us the passing flock, before our eyes can
discern the birds against the sky, is the
call of the wise old gander who is the
leader, to those following him, and their
return salute. He knows the way on this
long thousand-mile journey, and knows it
by instinct and in part by the topography
of the country. If ever fog or storm hides
the earth from his view, he is likely to be-
come confused, to the dismay of his flock,
which follows him to the earth with many
lonely and distressful cries.
The northern migration takes place in
April and May, and the southern from
October to December. The journey is
made with stops for rest and refreshment
at certain selected places, usually some se-
cluded pond or lake. The food of wild
ANIMALS
geese consists of water plants, seeds and
corn, and some of the smaller animals liv-
ing in water. Although the geese come to
rest on the water, they go to the shore to
feed. In California, the wild geese are
dreaded visitors of the cornfields, and men
with guns are employed regularly to keep
them off.
The nests are made of sticks lined with
down, usually along the shores of streams,
sometimes on tree stumps and sometimes
in deserted nests of the osprey. There are
A. R. Dugmore
Wild geese flying in even ranks
only four or five eggs laid and both parents
are devoted to the young, the gander
bravely defending his nest and family
from the attacks of any enemies.
Although there are several species of
wild geese on the Atlantic Coast, the one
called by this name is usually the Canada
goose. This bird is a superb creature,
brown above and gray beneath, with head,
neck, tail, bill, and feet of black. These
black trimmings are highly ornamental
and, as if to emphasize them, there is a
white crescent-shaped " bib " extending
from just back of the eyes underneath the
head. This white patch is very striking,
and gives one the impression of a bandage
for sore throat. It is regarded as a call-
color, and is supposed to help keep the
flock together; the side tail-coverts are also
white and may serve as another guide to
follow.
Often some wounded or wearied bird
of the migrating flock spends the winter
in farmyards with domestic geese. One
morning a neighbor of mine found that
during the night a wild gander, injured
in some way, had joined his flock. The
stranger was treated with much courtesy
by its new companions as well as by the
farmer's family and soon seemed per-
fectly at home. The next spring he mated
with one of the domestic geese. In the late
summer, my neighbor, mindful of wild
geese habits, clipped the wings of the gan-
der so that he would be unable to join any
passing flock of his wild relatives. As the
migrating season approached, the gander
became very uneasy; not only was he un-
easy and unhappy always but he insisted
that his wife share his misery of unrest.
He spent days in earnest remonstrance
with her and, lifting himself by his
cropped wings to the top of the barnyard
fence, he insisted that she keep him com-
pany on this, for webbed feet, uneasy rest-
ing place. Finally, after many days of
tribulation, the two valiantly started south
on foot. News was received of their prog-
ress for some distance and then they were
lost to us. During the winter our neighbor
visited a friend living eighteen miles to the
southward and found in his barnyard the
errant pair. They had become tired of mi-
grating by tramping and had joined the
farmer's flock; but we were never able to
determine the length of time required for
this journey.
SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird
Leaflet 106; Birds in the Wilderness, by
George M. Sutton; Farm Animals, by
James G. Lawson; Nature and Science
Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison
E. Howe, Book 2, Outdoor Visits, Book 3,
Surprises; The Pet Boot, by Anna B.
Comstock; also, readings on pages 28-29.
LESSON 34
GEESE
LEADING THOUGHT — Geese are the
most intelligent of the domesticated birds,
and they have many interesting habits.
METHOD — This lesson should not be
BIRDS
given unless there are geese where the
pupils may observe them. The questions
should be given a few at a time and an-
swered individually by the pupils after the
observations are made.
OBSERVATIONS — i. What is the chief
difference between the appearance of a
goose and a duck? How does the beak of
the goose differ from that of the duck in
shape and in texture? Describe the nostrils
and their situation.
2. What is the difference in shape be-
tween the neck of the goose and that of
the duck?
3. What can you say about the plum-
age of geese? How are geese " picked "?
At what time of year? From what parts
of the body are the feathers plucked?
4. Are the wings of the goose large com-
pared with the body? How do geese exer-
cise their wings? Describe the tail of the
goose and how it is used.
5. How do the legs and feet of the
goose differ from those of the duck? De-
scribe the goose's foot. How many toes are
webbed? Where is the other toe? What is
the shape of the track made by the goose's
foot? Which portions of the legs are used
for oars? When the goose is swimming
forward where are her feet? When turning
around how does she use them? Does the
goose waddle when walking or running as
a duck does? Why? Does a goose toe in
when walking? Why?
6. Describe the shape and color of the
following breeds of domestic geese: The
Toulouse, the Embden, the African, and
the Chinese.
HABITS OF GEESE
1. What is the chief food of geese?
What do they find in the water to eat?
How does their food differ from that of
ducks?
2. How do geese differ from hens in the
matter of mating and nesting? At what
time of year do geese mate? Does a pair
usually remain mated for life?
3. Describe the nest and compare the
eggs with those of hens. Describe the
young goslings in general appearance.
With what are they covered? What care
do the parents give to their goslings? De-
scribe how the parents take their family
afield. How do they induce their goslings
to go into the water for the first time? How
do they protect them from enemies?
4. How does the gander or goose fight?
What are the chief weapons? How is the
head held when the attack is made?
5. How does the goose clean her feath-
ers, wings, and feet? How does she oil her
feathers? Where does she get the oil and
with what does she apply it?
6. How much of goose language do you
understand? What is the note of alarm?
How are defiance and distrust expressed?
How does a goose look when hissing?
What is the constant note which the gos-
ling makes?
7. Give such instances as you may know
illustrating the intelligence of geese, their
loyalty and bravery.
8. " The Canada Goose, its appearance,
nesting habits, and migrations," would be
an interesting topic for discussion.
GAME BIRDS
1. RING-NECKED PHEASANTS. These birds,
native to China, have been introduced into many
other parts of the world. They were first brought
to the United States in 1881 and since then have
become common in many of the states. The
cock is handsome and brightly colored, the hen
an inconspicuous brown. These pheasants are
found in fields and in hedgerows or brush-
covered areas rather than in forested sections.
They feed chiefly on the ground, eating weed
seeds, insects, ungarnered grain, and wild or
waste fruit. In winter, whenever the ground is
covered with crusted snow or ice, it is hard for
them to get food and many of them starve unless
man feeds them. Another difficulty of theirs in
winter is that their long tail feathers get loaded
with snow and ice, which keeps them from going
about after food and even from seeking shelter.
(Photo by courtesy of Country Life in America)
2. WILD TURKEY. This game bird was once
common from New England southward and
west to the Rocky Mountains. It has been
exterminated in the North, but it is still found
locally in the South and West. Because the
wild turkey thrives upon a variety of foods
and because it can adapt itself to varied con-
ditions of climate, it is again being introduced
in many sections of the country. (Photo by
L. W. Brownell)
3. NEST OF THE RUFFED GROUSE. The ruffed
grouse, a much prized game bird, is native
to the eastern and central United States. It
is a very hardy bird, being able to withstand
extreme cold, and to live on the buds and twigs
of trees when insects, berries, and seeds are
not available. In winter ruffed grouse take
shelter at night in a "pocket" of snow or be-
neath brush; in summer they usually roost in
trees. In appearance this bird is not unlike the
dusky grouse (No. 5), (Photo by Marjorie
Ruth Ross)
4. EASTERN BOB WHITE or QUAIL. Found
in the eastern United States, except penin-
sular Florida, and as far west as Colorado,
except New Mexico and southern Texas, bob-
white or quail are permanent residents. They
like open fields with brushy fence-corners or
low bushes near at hand for protection from
storm and enemies. The pretty song is often
translated bob-white or buck-wheat. The nest
is made upon the ground under a bunch of
grass or some bush, and in it are laid ten to
eighteen white eggs. The family or covey will
remain together until spring, and at night
will squat close together in a circle with tails
together and heads out ready to scatter in all
directions at the slightest indication of dan-
ger. In winter when quail are in this forma-
tion, they may be covered with snow; and
if a crust of sleet or ice which they are unable
to break should form, the entire covey may
smother or starve. (Photo by L. W. Brownell)
5. DUSKY GROUSE. A relative of the ruffed
grouse, this species is found in the Rocky
Mountain regions of the United States and
Canada. (Photo by L. W. Brownell)
6. A WOODCOCK ON ITS NEST. Except in
the Far West the woodcock is found wide-
spread over the United States. It winters in
the South. It lives largely on earthworms and
grubs for which it probes moist soft earth
with a long, sensitive bill. The courtship song-
flights of the male are unique: with a call to
his mate he rises into the air; by a series of
loops he flies higher and higher until from a
height of about two hundred feet he drops
suddenly to a place on the ground very near
where he started. The young quickly learn
to fly, but until they do they are frequently
carried from place to place by their mother
who holds them between her legs with her feet.
(Photo by Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.)
ANIMALS
The beginning of \the strut. These gobblers are strutting before the camera, hidden ^ by brush,
in an endeavor to attract the hen turkey whose mating call the camera man is imitating
THE TURKEY
That the turkey and not the eagle
should have been chosen for our national
bird, was the conviction of Benjamin
Franklin. It is a native of our country, it
is beautiful as to plumage, and like the
American Indian, it has never yielded en-
tirely to the influences of civilization.
Through the hundreds of years of domes-
tication it still retains many of its wild
habits. In fact, it has many qualities in
common with the red man. Take for in-
stance its sun dance, which anyone who
is willing to get up early enough in the
morning and who has a flock of turkeys
at hand can witness. Miss Ada Georgia
made a pilgrimage to witness this dance
and describes it thus: "While the
dawn was still faint and gray, the long
row of birds on the ridge-pole stood up,
stretched legs and wings and flew down
into the orchard beside the barnyard and
began a curious, high-stepping, * flip-flop '
dance on the frosty grass. It consisted of
little, awkward, up-and-down jumps, var-
ied by forward springs of about a foot,
with lifted wings. Both hens and males
danced, the latter alternately strutting and
hopping and all ' singing/ the hens calling
a ' Quit, quit/ the males accompanying
with a high-keyed rattle, sounding like a
hard wood stick drawn rapidly along a
picket fence. As the sun came up and the
sky brightened, the exhibition ended sud-
denly when ' The Captain/ a great thirty
pound gobbler and leader of the flock,
made a rush at one of his younger breth-
ren who had dared to be spreading a tail
too near to his majesty/'
The bronze breed resembles most
closely our native wild turkey and is there-
fore chosen for this lesson. The colors and
markings of the plumage form the bronze
turkey's chief beauty. Reaching from the
skin of the neck halfway to the middle of
the back is a collar of glittering bronze
with greenish and purple iridescence, each
139
BIRDS
feather tipped with a narrow jet band, the four. On the inner side of the gob-
The remainder of the back is black except bier's legs, about one-third the bare space
that each feather is edged with bronze. above the foot, is a wicked-looking spur
The breast is like the collar and at its which is a most effective weapon. The
center is a tassel of black bristles called wings are large and powerful; the turkey
the beard which hangs limply downward flies well for such a large bird and usually
when the birds are feeding; but when the roosts high, choosing trees or the ridge-
gobbler stiffens his muscles to strut, this " " " * "
pole of the bam for this purpose.
In many ways the turkeys are not more
than half domesticated. They insistently
prefer to spend their nights out of doors
instead of under a roof. They are also
great wanderers and thrive best when al-
lowed to forage in the fields and woods for
a part of their food.
The gobbler is the most vainglorious
bird known to us; when he struts to show
his flock of admiring hens how beautiful
he is, he lowers his wings and spreads the
of the hen are like those of the gobbler stiff primary quills until their tips scrape
except that the bronze brilliance of breast, the ground, lifting meanwhile into a semi-
beard is thrust proudly forth. Occasionally
the hen turkeys have a beard. The long
quills, or primaries, of the wings are barred
across with bands of black and white;
the secondaries are very dark, luminous
brown, with narrower bars of white. Each
feather of the fan-shaped tail is banded
with black and brown and ends with a
black bar tipped with white; the tail-cov-
erts are lighter brown but also have the
black margin edged with white. The colors
neck, and wings is dimmed by the faint
line of white which tips each feather.
The heads of all are covered with a
warty wrinkled skin, bluish white on the
crown, grayish blue about the eyes, and
the other parts are red. Beneath the throat
is a hanging fold called the wattle, and
above the beak a fleshy pointed knob
called the caruncle, which on the gobbler
is prolonged so that it hangs over and be-
low the beak. When the bird is angry
these carunculated parts swell and grow
more vivid in color, seeming to be gorged
with blood. The color of the skin about
the head is more extensive and brilliant in
the gobblers than in the hens. The beak is
slightly curved, short, stout, and sharp-
pointed, yellowish at the tip and dark at
the base.
The eyes are bright, dark hazel with a
thin red line of iris. Just back of the eye is
the opening of the ear, seemingly a mere
hole, yet leading to a very efficient ear,
upon which every smallest sound im-
pinges.
The legs of the young turkeys are nearly
black, fading to a brownish gray when ma-
ture. The legs and feet are large and stout,
the middle toe of the three front ones be-
ing nearly twice the length of the one on
either side; the hind toe is the shortest of
circular fan his beautiful tail feathers; he
protrudes his chest, and raises the irides-
cent plumage of his neck like a ruff to
make a background against which he
throws back his red, white, and blue deco-
rated head. He moves forward with slow
and mincing steps and calls attention to
his grandeur by a series of most aggressive
" gobbles/7 But we must say for the gob-
bler that although he is vain he is also a
brave fighter. When beginning a fight he
advances with wings lowered and sidewise
as if guarding his body with the spread
wing. The neck and the sharp beak are
outstretched and he makes the attack
so suddenly that it is impossible to see
whether he strikes with both wing and
beak or only with the latter, as with fury
he pounces upon his adversary apparently
striving to rip his neck open with his spurs.
Turkey hens usually begin to lay in
April in this latitude (southern New
York) and much earlier in more southern
states. At nesting time each turkey hen
strays off alone, seeking the most secluded
spot she can find to lay the large, oval,
brown-speckled eggs. Silent and sly, she
slips away to the place daily, by the most
roundabout ways, and never moving in
the direction of the nest when she thinks
herself observed. Sometimes the sight of
140
any person near her nest will cause her to
desert it. The writer has spent many hours
when a child, sneaking in fence comers
and behind stumps and tree trunks, stalk-
ing turkeys' nests. Incubation takes four
weeks. The female is a most persistent sit-
ter and care should be taken to see that
she gets a good supply of food and water
at this time. Good sound corn or wheat is
the best food for her at this period. When
sitting she is very cross and will fight most
courageously when molested on her nest.
Turkey nestlings are rather large, with
long, bare legs and scrawny, thin necks;
they are very delicate during the first
six weeks of their lives. Their call is a
plaintive " peep, weep/' and when a little
turkey feels lost its cry is expressive of
great fear and misery. But if the mother
is freely ranging she does not seem to be
much affected by the needs of her brood;
she will fight savagely for them if they are
near her, but if they stray, and they usually
do, she does not seem to miss or hunt for
them, but strides serenely on her way,
keeping up a constant crooning "kr-rit,
kr-rit," to encourage them to follow. As a
consequence, the chicks are lost, or get
draggled and chilled by struggling through
wet grass and leaves that are no obstacle
to the mother's strong legs, and thus many
die. If the mother is confined in a coop
it should be so large and roomy that she
can move about without trampling on the
chicks, and it should have a dry floor, since
dampness is fatal to the little ones.
For the first week the chicks should be
fed five times a day, and for the next five
weeks they should have three meals a day.
They should be given only just about
enough to fill each little crop and none
should be left over to be trodden under
their awkward little feet. Their quarters
should be kept clean and free from vermin.
SUGGESTED READING — Farm Animals,
by James G. Lawson; also, readings on
pages 28-29.
LESSON 35
TURKEYS
LEADING THOUGHT — The turkey is a
native of America. It was introduced into
ANIMALS
Spain from Mexico about 1518, and since
then has been domesticated. However,
there are still in some parts of the coun-
try flocks of wild turkeys. It is a beautiful
bird and has interesting habits.
METHOD — If the pupils could visit a
flock of turkeys, the lesson would be given
to a better advantage. If this is impossible,
ask the questions a few at a time and let
those pupils who have opportunities for
observing the turkeys give their answers
before the class.
OBSERVATIONS— i. Of what breed are
the turkeys you are studying: Bronze,
Black, Buff, White Holland, or Narragan-
sett?
2. What is the general shape and size
of the turkey? Describe its plumage, not-
ing every color which you can see in it.
Does the plumage of the hen turkey difr
fer from that of the gobbler?
3. What is the covering of the head of
the turkey, what is its color and how far
does it extend down the neck of the bird?
Is it always the same color; if not, what
causes the change? Is the head covering
alike in shape and size on the male and
the female? What is the part called that
hangs from the front of the throat below
the beak? From above the beak?
4. What is the color of the beak? Is it
short or long, straight or curved? Where
are the nostrils situated?
5. What is the color of the turkey's
eyes? Do you think it is a keen-sighted
bird?
6. Where are the ears? Do they show
as plainly as a chicken's ears do? Are tur
keys quick of hearing?
7. Do turkeys scratch like hens? Are
they good runners? Describe the feet and
legs as to shape, size, and color. Has the
male a spur on his legs, and if so, where is
it situated? For what is it used?
8. Can turkeys fly well? Are the wings
small or comparatively large and strong
for the weight of the body? Do turkeys
prefer high or low places for perching
when they sleep? Is it well to house and
confine them in small buildings and parks
as is done with other fowls?
9. Tell, as nearly as you can discover by
close observation, how the gobbler sets
BIRDS M1
each part of his plumage when he is scribe the turkey's egg, as well as you can,
" showing off " or strutting. "What do you as to color, shape, and size. Can one tell it
think is the bird's purpose in thus exhibit- by the taste from an ordinary hen's egg?
ing his fine feathers? Does the " king of About how many eggs does the turkey hen
the flock " permit any such action by lay in her nest before she begins to " get
other gobblers in his company? broody " and want to sit?
10. Are turkeys timid and cowardly or 13. How many days of incubation ^ are
independent and brave, ready to meet and required to hatch the turkey chick? Is it as
fight anything which they think is threat- downy and pretty as other little chicks?
ening to their comfort and safety? How often should the young chicks be fed,
11. When turkeys fight, what parts of and what food do you think is best for
their bodies seem to be used as weapons? them? Are turkey chicks as hardy as other
Does the male " gobble " during a fight, chicks?
or only as a challenge or in triumph when 14. Is the turkey hen generally a good
victorious? Do the hen turkeys ever fight, mother? Is she cross or gentle when sitting
or only the males? and when brooding her young? Is it pos-
12. How early in the spring does the sible to keep the mother turkey as closely
turkey hen begin to lay? Does she nest confined with her brood as it is with the
about the poultry yard and the bams or is mother hen? What supplies should be
she likely to seek some secret and distant given to her in the way of food, grits, dust-
spot where she may hide her eggs? De- baths, etc.?
BIRDS OF MARSH AND SHORE
1. SHOVELLER, SPOONBILL, OR BROADBILL. The
range of the shoveller extends from Alaska in
summer to Colombia, South America, in win-
ter. With its uniquely long, broad bill, this shal-
low-water 'dabbler" gathers up water and
ooze; by means of the comblike teeth with
which the bill is equipped it strains out the in-
sects and vegetable matter which are its fa-
vorite food. (Photo by L. W. Brownell)
2. THE MALLARD. The range of the mallard in
North America extends in summer south of
the Arctic circle, east to Hudson Bay, and south
to Lower California and Texas. In winter it is
found from the Aleutian Islands south to
Panama. Being a "dabbler" the mallard gen-
erally feeds in shallow water, but it is very
adaptable as to food and environment. From
the economic standpoint it is the most impor-
tant duck in the world, since it is the ancestor
of most domestic ducks, is 'widely distributed,
and produces meat of good quality. (Photo by
L. W. Brownell)
3. LESSER SCAUP DUCKS. This is one of the
most common ducks in the open waters of
rivers, larger lakes and bays, and along sea-
coasts. Its food, consisting chiefly of insects,
crustaceans, water snails, tadpoles, and aquatic
plants, it secures by diving. In the Gulf states,
the lesser scaup is often called the " raft duck "
because of the great numbers that collect into
flocks and move about on the water. These
rafts are sometimes a mile long. (Photo by
S. A. Grimes)
4. PIED-BILLED GREBE ON ITS NEST. The sum-
mer range of this grebe is from southern Canada
to the southern United States; its winter range
extends to Mexico and Cuba. It moves south
when ice forms on northern streams, and re-
turns when it breaks up in spring. Its food
consists chiefly of aquatic animals and some
water plants. To escape danger it dives rather
than flies. This grebe, like others, often carries
its young on its back, thus hiding them from
observers; the mother can even dive with the
young and when she comes again to the sur-
face keep them still concealed. (Photo by Olin
Sewall Pettingill, Jr.)
5. SPOTTED SANDPIPER APPROACHING ITS NEST.
The sandpiper (also called tip-up or tip-tail),
said to be the most widely and commonly dis-
tributed shore bird in North America, is found
in regions about both fresh and salt water. Al-
though it can swim and dive readily, its food
consists chiefly of grasshoppers, cutworms,
grubs, and pests of cultivated lands. The nest,
a hollow in the ground, may be along shores or
even in cultivated fields far from water; it is
built by the united efforts of the pair. (Photo
by L. W. Brownell)
6. CHICKS OF WILSON'S PLOVER, These newly
hatched chicks were picked up on a sandy beach
and " posed 3} in a shell. (Photo by Olin Sewall
Pettingill, Jr.)
7. WILSON'S PLOVER AT ITS NEST. (See also
No. 6.) Wilson's plover is found in the coastal
regions of southern North America and Cen~
tral America. It feeds on the tiny sea creatures
that the falling tide leaves strewn along mud
flats and sandy beaches. The nest, usually
placed above high water on a sandy beach, is
a hollowed out place in the sand. The young
and eggs blend so with the sand as to be almost
unnoticeable. In the one pictured here, note
one egg beneath the female, one in front of her,
and newly hatched chick behind her. (Photo
by S. A. Grimes)
8. KING RAIL ON ITS NEST. The range of this
bird is in the central and southern portions of
the eastern half of the United States. Its food
consists largely of insects of cultivated lands,
which it secures from the edges of swampy
areas in upla?ids. Rails are found chiefly in
grassy marshes. The legs are strong and the
wings are weak, and hence when pursued they
will run or hide, but will fly only as a last resort.
(Photo by S. A. Grimes)
9. THE COMMON TERN AT ITS NEST. Terns
live in both the Eastern and Western Hemi-
spheres.
Terns nest in colonies, usually on the open
sand of an island beach. They can be distin-
guished from gulls by their more pointed bills,
narrower wings, and by their habit of diving or
swimming to catch their food, which consists of
small fish, aquatic worms, and insects. (Photo by
S. A. Grimes)
10. AMERICAN EGRET, GREAT WHITE EGRET.
OR WHITE HERON. The summer range of this
egret is chiefly from the southern United States
south to Patagonia. In late summer it migrates
northward to Maine. Its winter range is Colo-
rado, Texas, and South Carolina southward.
The egrets and other herons are commonly
found about the shores of lakes, rivers, or bays.
They usually nest in flocks. Once in danger of
extinction, they are now under protection and
are increasing in numbers. (Photo by S. A.
Grimes)
11. AN AMERICAN BITTEGRN ON THE DEFEN-
SIVE. This inhabitant of the marshes ranges in
summer across the North American continent
from central Canada to the southern United
States. In winter it is found from the southern
United States to Panama. When approached
bitterns fall into a rigid pose which they hold
until the intruder retires or frightens them into
flight. The cry of this bird is most arresting and
unusual. It is compared to the sound of driving
a stake or the sound of a pump in action. Frogs,
snakes, small fish, mice, and insects comprise
its food. (Photo by S. A. Grimes)
FISHES
It remains yet unresolved whether the happiness of a man in this world doth con-
sist more in contemplation or action. Concerning which two opinions I shall forebear
to add a third by declaring my own, and rest myself contented in telling you that
both of these meet together, and do most properly belong to the most honest, ingen-
ious, quiet and harmless art of angling. And first I tell you what some have observed,
and I have found to be a real truth, that the very sitting by the riverside is not only the
quietest and the fittest place for contemplation, but will invite an angler to it.
— ISAAK WALTON
Dear, human, old Isaak Walton discov-
ered that nature-study, fishing, and phi-
losophy were akin and as inevitably related
as the three angles of a triangle. And yet
it is surprising how little the fish have been
used as subjects for nature lessons. Every
brook and pond is a treasure to the teacher
who will find what there is in it and who
knows what may be got out of it.
Almost any of the fishes found in a
brook or pond may be kept in an aquar-
ium for a few days of observation in the
schoolroom. A large water pail or a bucket
does very well if there is no glass aquar-
ium. The water in an aquarium should
be changed whenever it becomes foul.
The practice should be established, once
for all, of putting these finny prisoners
back into the identical body of water from
which they were taken. Much damage has
been done by liberating fish in bodies of
water where they do not belong. Many
fish have cannibalistic traits: black bass,
for instance, if they are either the new-
comers or the original inhabitants, will
be likely to attack and destroy other
fish. Besides, even if the new home pro-
vides suitable living conditions for the
newcomers, they may upset the balance
existing among the various forms of plant
and animal life already there.
SUGGESTED READING — The Book of
Fishes, by J. O. LaGorce; Cold-blooded
Vertebrates, by Samuel F. Hildebrand,
Charles W. Gilmore, and Doris M. Coch-
ran, Vol. 8 of Smithsonian Scientific Se-
ries; The Complete Aquarium Book, by
W. T. Innes; Field Book of Ponds and
Streams, by Ann H. Morgan; A History of
Fishes, by J. R. Norman; Nature — by Sea-
side and Wayside, by Mary G. Phillips
and Julia M. Wright, Book 3, Plants and
Animals; Our Great Outdoors: Reptiles,
Amphibians and Fishes, by C. W. G.
Eifrig; Young Folks' Book of Fishes, by
Ida M. Mellen. See also Bibliography.
THE GOLDFISH
Once upon a time, if stories are true,
there lived a king called Midas, whose
touch turned everything to gold. When-
ever I see goldfish, I wonder if, perhaps,
King Midas were not a Chinese and if he
perchance did not handle some of the lit-
tle fish in Orient streams. But common
man has learned a magic as wonderful as
that of King Midas, although it does not
act so immediately, for it is through his
agency in selecting and breeding that
we have gained these exquisite fish for
our aquaria. In the streams of China the
goldfish, which were the ancestors of these
effulgent creatures, wore safe green colors
like the shiners in our brooks; and if any
goldfish escape from our fountains and
run wild, their progeny return to their
FISHES
145
native olive-green color. There are many
of such dull-colored goldfish in the lakes
and rivers of our country. It is almost in-
conceivable that one of the brilliant-col-
ored fishes, if it chanced to escape into our
ponds? should escape the fate of being
eaten by some larger fish attracted by such
glittering bait.
The goldfish, as we see it in the aquar-
ium, is brilliant orange above and pale
lemon-yellow below; there are many speci-
mens that are adorned with black patches.
And as if this fish were bound to imitate
the precious metals, there are individuals
which are silver instead of gold; they are
oxidized silver above and polished silver
below. The goldfish are closely related
to the carp and can live in waters that
are stale. If water plants and scavengers,
such as water snails, are kept in the
aquarium, the water does not become foul.
The water, then, need not be changed; but
unless the aquarium is covered, it will be
necessary to add water to replace that
which evaporates. Goldfish should not be
fed too lavishly. An inch square of one of
the sheets of prepared fish food we have
found a fair daily ration for five medium
sized fish; these fish are more likely to
"DorsaT fi
Helen F. Hill
Fish in a hatchery pond
Goldfish with parts named
die from overfeeding than from starving.
Goldfish are naturally long-lived; Miss Ada
Georgia kept them until seven years old
in a school aquarium; and there is on rec-
ord one goldfish that lived nine years.
Too often the wonderful common
things are never noticed because of their
commonness; and there is no better in-
stance of this than the form and move-
ments of a fish. It is an animal in many
ways similar to animals that live on land;
but its form and structure are such that it
is perfectly adapted to live in water all
its life; there are none of the true fishes
which live portions of their lives on land
as do the frogs. The first peculiarity of the
fish is its shape. Looked at from above, the
broader part of the body is near the front
end, which is rounded or pointed so as to
cut the water readily. The long, narrow,
hind portion of the body with the tail acts
as a propeller in the sense that it pushes
the body forward; this movement is not
at all similar to the action of an airplane
propeller or a ship's screw. Seen from the
side, the body is a smooth, graceful oval
and this form is especially adapted to
move through the water swiftly, as can
be demonstrated to the pupil by cutting a
model of the fish from wood and trying
to move it through the water sidewise.
Normally, the fish has seven fins, one
along the back called the dorsal, one at
the end of the tail called the tail or caudal
fin, one beneath the rear end of the body
called the anal? a pair on the lower side
ANIMALS
N. Y. State Conservation Dept.
Large-mouthed black bass
Aplites salmoides
of the body called the ventrals, and a pair
just back of the gill openings called the
pectorals. All these fins play their own
parts in the movements of the fish. The
dorsal fin is usually higher in front than
behind and can be lifted or shut down like
a fan. This fin when it is lifted gives the
fish greater height and it can be twisted
to one side or the other and thus be made
a factor in steering. The anal fin on the
lower side acts in a similar manner. The
tail fin is the propeller and sends the body
forward by pressing backward on the
water, first on one side and then on the
other, being used like a scull. The tail
fin varies in shape very much in different
species. In the goldfish it is fanlike, with
a deeply notched hind edge, but in some
it is rounded or square. The paired fins
correspond anatomically to our arms and
legs, the pectorals representing the arms,
the ventrals the legs.
Fishes7 eyes have no eyelid but the eye-
ball is movable, and this often gives the
impression that the fish winks. Fishes are
necessarily nearsighted since the lens of
the eye has to be spherical in order to see
in the water. The sense of smell is located
in a little sac to which the nostril leads;
the nostrils are small and often partitioned
and may be seen on either side of the
snout. The nostrils of a fish have no con-
nection whatever with breathing.
The tongue of the fish is very bony or
gristly and immovable. Very little sense
of taste is developed in it. The shape,
number, and position of the teeth vary ac-
cording to the food habits of the fish. The
commonest teeth are fine, sharp, and short
and are arranged in pads, as seen in the
bullhead. Some fish have blunt teeth suit-
able for crushing shells. Some herbivorous
fishes have sharp teeth with serrated edges,
while those living upon crabs and snails
have incisor-like teeth. In some species we
find several types of teeth; in others, such
as goldfish or minnows in general, the
teeth may be entirely absent. The teeth
are borne not only on the jaws but also
in the roof of the mouth, on the tongue,
and in the throat.
The ear of the fish has neither outside
form nor opening and is very imperfect
in comparison with that of man. Extend-
ing along the sides of the body from head
to tail is a line of modified scales contain-
ing small tubes connecting with nerves;
N. Y. State Conservation Dept.
A chain pickerel
Esox niger
N. Y. State Conservation Dept.
A yellow perch
Perca flavescens
this is called the lateral line and it is be-
lieved that it is in some way connected
with the fish's senses, perhaps with the
sense of hearing.
The covering of fishes varies: most fish,
such as the yellow perch and black bass,
are sheathed in an armor of scales; others,
such as the bullhead, have only a smooth
skin. All fish are covered with a slimy
substance which somewhat reduces fric-
tion as they swim through the water.
In order to understand how the fish
breathes we must examine its gills. In
front, just above the entrance to the gullet,
are several bony ridges which bear two
rows of pinkish fringes; these are the gill
arches and the fringes are the gills. The
FISHES
gills are filled with tiny bloodvessels, and
as the water passes over them, the impu-
rities of the blood pass out through the
thin skin of the gills and the life-giving
oxygen passes in. Since most fish cannot
make use of air unless it is dissolved in
water, it is very important that the water
in the aquarium provide a sufficient sur-
face area to enable the fish to secure air.
The gill arches also bear a series of bony
processes called gill-rakers. Their function
is to prevent the escape of food through
the gills while it is being swallowed, and
they vary in size according to the food
habits of the fish. We note that the fish in
the aquarium constantly opens and closes
the mouth; this action draws the water
into the throat and forces it out over the
gills and through the gill openings; this,
then, is the act of breathing.
SUGGESTED READING— Goldfish Culture
for Amateurs, by A. E. Hodge and Arthur
Derham; Goldfish, Their Care in Small
Aquaria and Ponds, by E. C. Fearnow
(Document 980, Bureau of Fisheries,
Washington, D. C.); The Pet Book, by
Anna B. Comstock; also, readings on page
144.
LESSON 36
A STUDY OF THE FISH
LEADING THOUGHT — A fish lives in the
water where it must breathe, move, and
find its food. The water world is quite
different from the air world and the fish
have developed forms, senses, and habits
which fit them for life in the water.
METHOD — The goldfish is used as a
subject for this lesson because it is so
conveniently kept where the children may
see it. However, a shiner or other minnow
would do as well.
Before the pupils begin the study, place
the diagram shown on p. 145 on the black-
board, with all the parts labeled; thus
the pupils will be able to learn the parts
of the fish by consulting it? and not be
compelled to commit them to memory
arbitrarily. It would be well to associate
the goldfish with a geography lesson on
China.
OBSERVATIONS — i . Where do fish live?
147
2. What is the shape of a fish when
seen from above? Where is the widest
part? What is its shape seen from the
side? Think if you can in how many ways
the shape of the fish is adapted for mov-
ing swiftly through the water.
3. How many fins has the fish? Make
a sketch of the goldfish with all its fins
and name them from the diagram on the
blackboard.
4. How many fins are there in all? Four
of these fins are in pairs; where are they
situated? What are they called? Which
pair corresponds to our arms? Which to
our legs?
5. Describe the pectoral fins. How are
they used? Are they kept constantly mov-
ing? Do they move together or alternately?
How are they used when the fish swims
backward?
6. How are the ventral fins used? How
do they assist the fish when swimming?
7. Observe a dorsal fin and an anal fin.
How are these used when the fish is
swimming?
8. With what fin does the fish push
itself through the water? Make a sketch
of the tail. Note if it is square, rounded,
or notched at the end.
9. Watch the goldfish swim and de-
scribe the action of all the fins while it
is in motion. In what position are the fins
when the fish is at rest?
10. What is the nature of the covering
of the fish? Are the scales large or small?
In what direction do they seem to over-
lap? Of what use to the fish is this scaly
covering?
11. Can you see a line which extends
from the upper part of the gill opening,
along the side to the tail? This is called
the lateral line. Do you think it is of any
use to the fish?
12. Note carefully the eyes of the fish.
Describe the pupil and the iris. Are the
eyes placed so that the fish can see in
all directions? Can they be moved so as
to see better in any direction? Does the
fish wink? Has it any eyelids? Do you
know why fish are nearsighted?
13. Can you see the nostrils? Is there
a little wartlike projection connected
ANIMALS
with the nostril? Do you think fishes
breathe through their nostrils?
14. Describe the mouth of the fish.
Does it open upward, downward, or di-
rectly in front? What sort of teeth have
fish? How does the fish catch its prey?
Does the lower or upper jaw move in the
process of eating?
15. Is the mouth kept always in mo-
tion? Do you think the fish is swallowing
water all the time? Do you know why it
does this? Can you see a wide opening
along the sides of the head behind the
gill cover? Does the gill cover move with
the movement of the mouth? How does a
fish breathe?
16. What are the colors of the goldfish
above and below? What would happen to
our beautiful goldfish if they were put
in a brook with other fish? Why could
they not hide? Do you know what
happens to the colors of the goldfish
when they run wild in our streams and
ponds?
17. Can you find in books or cyclo-
pedias where the goldfish came from? Are
they gold and silver in color in the streams
where they are native? Do you think that
they had originally the long, slender, swal-
low-tails which we see sometimes in gold-
fish? How have the beautiful colors and
graceful forms of the gold and silver fishes
been developed?
I have my world, and so have you,
A tiny universe for two,
A bubble by the artist blown,
Scarcely more fragile than our own,
Where you have all a whale could wish,
Happy as Eden's primal fish.
Manna is dropt you thrice a day
From some land heaven not far away,
And still you snatch its softening crumbs,
Nor, more than we, think whence it
comes.
No toil seems yours but to explore
Your cloistered realm from shore to shore;
Sometimes you trace its limits round,
Sometimes its limpid depths you sound,
Or hover motionless midway,
Lilce gold-red clouds at set of day;
Erelong you whirl with sudden whim
Ofi to your globe's most distant rim,
Where, greatened by the watery lens,
Methinlcs no dragon of the fens
Flashed huger scales against the sky,
Roused by Sir Bevis or Sir Guy;
And the one eye that meets my view,
Lidless and strangely largening, too,
Like that of conscience in the dark,
Seems to make me its single mark.
What a benignant lot is yours
That have an own All-out-of-doors,
No words to spell, no sums to do,
No Nepos and no parlyvool
How happy you, without a thought
Of such cross things as Must and
Ought —
I too the happiest of boys
To see and share your golden joys!
— " THE ORACLE OF THE GOLDFISHES,"
LOWELL
THE BULLHEAD
The bull-head does usually dwell and hide himself in holes or amongst stones in
clear water; and in very hot days will lie a long time very still and sun himself and will
be easy to be seen on any flat stone or gravel; at which time he will suffer an angler to
put a hook baited with a small worm very near into his mouth; and lie never refuses
to bite, nor indeed, to be caught with the worst of anglers. — ISAAK WALTON
When one looks a bullhead in the face
one is glad that it is not a real bull, for
its barbels give it an appearance quite fit
for the making of a nightmare; and yet
from the standpoint of the bullhead, how
truly beautiful those fleshy feelers are!
For without them how could it feel its
way about searching for food in the mud?
Two of these barbels stand straight up;
the two largest ones stand out on each
FISHES
149
Common bullhead
Ameiurus nebulosus
State of New York Conservation Department
side of the mouth, and two pairs of short
ones adorn the lower lip, the smallest pair
at the middle.
As the fish moves about, it is easy to
see that the large barbels at the side of the
mouth are of the greatest use; it keeps
them in a constantly advancing move-
ment, feeling of everything it meets. The
upper ones stand straight up, keeping
watch for whatever news there may be
from above; the two lower ones spread
apart and follow rather than precede the
fish, seeming to test what lies below. The
upper and lower pairs seem to test things
as they are, while the large side pair deal
with what is going to be. The broad
mouth seems to be formed for taking in
all things eatable, for the bullhead lives
on almost anything alive or dead that it
discovers as it noses about in the mud.
Nevertheless, it has its notions about its
food, for I have repeatedly seen one draw
material into its mouth through its breath-
ing motion and then spew it out with a
vehemence one would hardly expect from
such a phlegmatic fish.
Although it has feelers which are very
efficient, it also has perfectly good eyes
which it uses to excellent purpose; note
how promptly it moves to the other side
of the aquarium when we are trying to
study it. The eyes are not large; the pupils
are black and oval and are rimmed with
a narrow band of shiny pale yellow. The
eyes are prominent so that when moved
backward and forward they gain a view
of the enemy in the rear or at the front
while the head is motionless. It seems
strange to see such a pair of pale yellow,
almost white eyes in such a dark body.
The general shape of the front part of
the body is flat, in fact, it is shaped de-
cidedly like a tadpole; this shape is espe-
cially fitted for groping about muddy
bottoms. The flat effect of the body is em-
phasized by the gill covers opening below
rather than at the sides, every pulsation
widening the broad neck. The pectoral
fins also open out on the same plane as
the body, although they can be turned
at an angle if necessary; they are thick and
fleshy and the sharp tips of their spines
offer punishment to whosoever touches
them. The dorsal fin is far forward and
not large; it is usually raised at a threat-
ening angle.
Near the tail there is a little fleshy dor-
sal fin which stands in line with the body,
and one wonders what is its special use,
The ventral fins are small. The anal fin is
far back and rather strong, and this with
150
ANIMALS
the long? strong tail gives the fish good
motor power; it can swim very rapidly if
occasion requires.
The bullhead is mud-colored and has
no scales. The skin is very thick and leath-
ery so that it is always removed before the
fish is cooked. The bullhead burrows deep
into the mud in the fall and remains there
all winter; when the spring freshets come,
it emerges and is hungry for fresh meat.
Bullhead guarding his nest
The family life of the bullheads and
other catfishes seems to be quite ideal.
Dr. Theodore Gill tells us that bullheads
make their nests by removing stones and
gravel from a more or less irregularly circu-
lar area in shallow water, and on sandy or
gravelly ground. The nest is somewhat
excavated, both parents removing the peb-
bles by sucking them into the mouth and
carrying them off for some distance. After
the eggs are laid, the male watches over
and guards the nest and seems to have
great family responsibilities. He is the
more active of the two in stirring and mix-
ing^ the young fry after they are hatched.
Smith and Harron describe the process
thus: "With their chins on the bottom,
the old fish brush the corners where the
fry were banked, and with the barbels all
directed forward, and flexed where they
touch the bottom, thoroughly agitate the
mass of fry, bringing the deepest individu-
als to the surface. This act is usually re-
peated several times in quick succession.
" The nests are usually made beneath
logs or other protecting objects and in
shallow water. The paternal care is con-
tinued for many days after the birth of the
young. At first these may be crowded to-
gether in a dense mass, but as time passes
they disperse more and more and spread
around the father. Frequently, especially
when the old one is feeding, some — one
or more — of the young are taken into the
mouth, but they are instinctively sepa-
rated from the food and spit out. At last
the young swarm venture farther from
their birthplace, or perhaps they are led
away by their parents/'
SUGGESTED READING — Along the Brook,
by Raymond T. Fuller; Backyard Explora-
tion, by Paul G. Howes; The Pet Book,
by Anna B. Comstock; The Pond Book,
by Walter P. Porter and Einar A. Hansen;
also, readings on page 144.
LESSON 37
THE BULLHEAD, OR HORNED POUT
LEADING THOUGHT — The bullhead
lives in mud bottoms of streams and
ponds and is particularly adapted for life
in such locations.
METHOD — A small bullhead may be
placed in a small aquarium jar. At first let
the water be clear and add a little pond
weed so as to observe the natural tendency
of the fish to hide. Later add mud and
gravel to the aquarium and note the be-
havior of the fish.
OBSERVATIONS — i. What at the first
glance distinguishes the bullhead from
other fish? Describe these strange " whis-
kers" growing about the mouth; how
many are there and where are they situ-
ated? Which are the longest pair? Can
the fish move them in any direction at
will?
2. Where do we find bullheads? On
what do they feed? Would their eyes help
them to find their food in the mud? How
do they find it?
3. Explain, if you can, why the bull-
head has barbels, or feelers, while the
trout and bass have none.
4. What is the shape of the mouth?
FISHES
151
5. What is the general shape of the
body? What is its color? Has it any scales?
6. Why should the bullhead be so flat
horizontally while the sunfish is so flat
in the opposite direction?
7. Describe the bullhead's eyes. Are
they large? What is their color? Where
are they placed?
8. Describe the dorsal fin? giving its
comparative size and position. Do you see
another dorsal fin? Where is this peculiar
fin and how does it differ from all of the
others?
9. Describe the tail fin. Does it seem
long and strong? Is the bullhead a good
swimmer?
10. Is the anal fin large or small as com-
pared with that of the goldfish?
11. How do the pectoral fins move as
compared with those of the sunfish? Why
is the position of the pectoral and dorsal
fins of benefit to this fish?
12. How does the bullhead inflict
wounds when it is handled? Tell how
these spines may protect it from its natural
enemies.
13. When is the best season for fishing
for bullheads? Does the place where they
are found affect the flavor of their flesh?
Why?
14. What is the spawning season? Do
you know about the nests the bullheads
build and the care they give their young?
15. Write an essay on the nest-making
habits of the bullheads and the care given
the young by the parents.
And what fish will the natural boy nat-
urally talce? In America, there is but one
fish which enters fully into the spirit of
the occasion. It is a fish of many species
according to the part of the country, and
of as many sizes as there are sizes of boys.
This fish is the horned pout, and all the
rest of the species of Ameiums. Horned
pout is its Boston name. Bullhead is good
enough for New York; and foi the rest of
the country, big and little, all the fishes
of this tribe are called catfish. A catfish is
a jolly blundering sort of a fish, a regular
Falstaff of the ponds. It has a fat /owl,
and a fat belly, which it is always trying
to fill. Smooth and sleek, its skin is almost
human in its delicacy. It wears a long
mustache, with scattering whiskers of
other sort. Meanwhile it always goes
armed with a sword, three swords, and
these it has always on hand, always ready
for a struggle on land as well as in the
water. The small boy often gets badly
stuck on these poisoned daggers, but, as
the fish knows how to set them by a
muscular twist, the small boy learns how,
by a like untwist, he may unset and leave
them harmless.
The catfish lives in sluggish waters. It
loves the millpond best of all, and it has
no foolish dread of hooks when it goes
forth to bite. Its mouth is wide. It swal-
lows the hook, and very soon it is in the
air, its white throat gasping in the untried
element. Soon it joins its fellows on the
forked stick, and even then, uncomfort-
able as it may find its new relations, it
never loses sight of the humor of the oc-
casion. Its large head and expansive fore-
head betoken a large mind. It is the only
fish whose brain contains a Sylvian fissure,
a piling up of /issue consequent on the
abundance of gray matter. So it under-
stands and makes no complaint. After it
has dried in the sun for an hour, pour a
little water over its gills, and it will wag
its tail, and squeak with gratitude. And
the best of all is, there are horned pouts
enough to go around.
The female horned pout lays thousands
of eggs, and when these hatch, she goes
about near the shore with her school of
little fishes, like a hen with myriad chicks.
She should be respected and let alone,
for on her success in rearing this breed of
" bullying little rangers " depends the
sport of the small boy of the future.
— " FISH STORIES," CHARLES FREDERICK
HOLDER AND DAVID STARR JORDAN
ANIMALS
State of New York Conservation Department
The common sucker
Catostomus commersonnii
THE COMMON SUCKER
He who loves to peer down into the
depths of still waters, often sees upon the
sandy, muddy, or rocky bottom several
long, wedge-shaped sticks lying at various
angles one to another. But if he thrust
down a real stick, behold, these inert,
water-logged sticks move off deftly! And
then he knows that they are suckers. He
may drop a hook baited with a worm in
front of the nose of one, and if he waits
long enough before he pulls up he may
catch this fish, not by its gills but by the
pit of its stomach; for it not only swallows
the hook completely but tries to digest it
dong with the worm. Its food is made up
of soft-bodied insects and other small
water creatures; it is also a mud eater and
manages to make a digestive selection
from the organic material of silt. For this
latter reason it is not a desirable food fish,
although its flesh varies in flavor with the
locality where it is found. The suckers
taken when the waters are cold, are tasty
but somewhat more bony than most fishes,
while those taken from warm waters are
very inferior in flavor and often unpalat-
able.
Seen from above, the sucker is wedge-
shaped, being widest at the eyes; seen from
the side it has a flat lower surface and
an ungracefully rounded contour above,
which tapers only slightly toward the tail.
The profile of the face gives the impres-
sion of a Roman nose. The young speci-
mens have an irregular scale-mosaic pat-
tern of olive-green blotches on a paler
ground color, while the old ones are quite
brown above and on the sides. The suck-
ers differ from most other fishes in having
the markings of the back extend down
the sides almost to the belly. This is a
help in concealing the fish, since its sides
show from above quite as distinctly as its
back because of its peculiar form. The
scales are rather large and are noticeably
larger behind than in the region of the
head. Like other fish it is white below.
The dorsal fin is placed about midway
the length of the fish as measured from
nose to tail. The tail is long and strong
and deeply notched; the anal fin extends
back to where the tail begins. The ventral
fins are small and are directly opposite the
hind half of the dorsal fin. The pectorals
are not large but are strong and are placed
low down. The sucker has not a lavish
equipment of fins, but its tail is strong
and it can swim swiftly; it is also very ex-
citable; in its efforts to escape, it will jump
from the aquarium more successfully than
any other fish. When resting on the bot-
tom, it is supported by its extended pec-
toral and ventral fins, which are strong al-
though not large.
FISHES
L53
The eyes are fairly large but the iris is
not shiny; they are placed so that the fish
can easily see above it as well as at the
sides; the eyes move so as to look up or
down and are very well adapted to serve
a fish that lives upon the bottom. The
nostrils are divided, the partition project-
ing until it seems a tubercle on the face.
The mouth opens below and looks like
the puckered opening of a bag. The lips
are thick but are very sensitive; it is by
projecting these lips, in a way that re-
minds one of a very short elephant's
trunk, that it is enabled to reach and find
its food in the mud or gravel; so al-
though the sucker's mouth is not a beauti-
ful feature, it is doubly useful. The sucker
has the habit of remaining motionless for
long periods of time. It breathes very
slowly and appears sluggish; it never seizes
its food with any spirit but simply slowly
engulfs it; and for this reason it is consid-
ered poor game. It is only in the spring
when they may be speared through the ice
that there is any fun in catching suckers;
it is at this season of the year that they
move upstream to shallow riffles to
spawn. Even so lowly a creature as the
sucker seems to respond to influences of
the springtime, for at that period the
male has a faint rosy stripe along his sides.
In the winter these fish retire to the
depths of the rivers or ponds.
There are many species of suckers and
they vary in size from six inches to three
feet in length. They inhabit all sorts of
waters, but they do not like a strong cur-
rent and are, therefore, found in still
pools. The common sucker (Catostomus
commersonii), which is the subject of this
lesson, sometimes attains the length of
twenty-two inches and the weight of five
pounds. The ones under observation were
about eight inches long, and proved to be
the acrobats of the aquarium, since they
were likely at any moment to jump out;
several times I found one on the floor.
SUGGESTED READING — Along the
Brook, by Raymond T. Fuller; Backyard
Exploration, by Paul G. Howes; also, read-
ings on page 144.
LESSON 38
THE COMMON SUCKER
LEADING THOUGHT — The sucker is es-
pecially adapted by shape for lying on the
bottom of ponds under still water wheie
its food is abundant.
METHOD — If still-water pools along
rivers or lakesides are accessible, it is far
more interesting to study a sucker in its
native haunts, as an introduction to the
study of its form and colors when it is in
the aquarium.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Where do you find
suckers? How do you catch them? Do
they take the hook' quickly? What is the
natural food of the sucker?
2. What is the shape of this fish's body
when seen from above? From the side?
What is the color above? On the sides?
Below? Does the sucker differ from most
other fishes in the coloring along its sides?
What is the reason for this? What do
suckers look like on the bottom of the
pond? Are they easily seen?
3. Describe or sketch a sucker, showing
the position, size, and shape of the fins
and tail. Are its scales large or small? How-
does it use its fins when at rest? When
moving? Is it a strong swimmer? Is it a
high jumper?
4. Describe the eyes; how are they espe-
cially adapted in position and in move-
ment to the needs of a fish that lives on
the bottom of streams and ponds?
5. Note the nostrils. Are they used for
breathing?
6. Where is the mouth of the sucker
situated? What is its form? How is it
adapted to get food from the bottom of
the stream and from crevices in the rocks?
7. Tell all you know about the habits of
the suckers. When do you see them first
in the spring? Where do they spend the
winter? Where do they go to spawn? How
large is the largest one you have ever
seen? Why is their flesh sometimes con-
sidered poor in quality as food? Is there a
difference in the flavor of their flesh de-
pending upon the temperature of the
water in which they live?
ANIMALS
State of New York Conservation Department
Common shiner or redfin
Notropis cornutus
THE SHINER
This is a. noteworthy and characteristic lineament, or cipher? or hieroglyphic, or
type of spring. You look into some clear, sandy bottomed brook where it spreads into
a deeper bay, yet flowing cold from ice and snow not far off, and see indistinctly poised
over the sand on invisible fins, the outlines of the shiner, scarcely to be distinguished
from the sands behind it as if it were transparent. — THOREAXJ
There are many species of shiners and
it is by no means easy to recognize them
or to distinguish them from chub, dace,
and other minnows, since all these belong
to one family; they all have the same ar-
rangement of fins and live in the same
water; and the plan of this lesson can with
few changes be applied to any of them.
Never were seen more exquisite colors
than shimmer along the sides of the com-
mon shiner (Notropis cornutus) . It is
pale olive-green above, just a sunny brook-
color; this is bordered at the sides by a line
of iridescent blue-purple, while the shin-
ing silver scales on the sides below flash
and glimmer with the changing hues of
the rainbow. Most of the other minnows
are darker than the shiners.
The body of the shiner is ideal for slip-
ping through the water. Seen from above
it is a narrow wedge, rounded in front and
tapering to a point behind; from the side,
it is long, oval, lance-shaped. The scales
are large and beautiful, and the lateral line
looks like a series of dots embroidered at
the center of the diamond-shaped scales.
The dorsal fin is placed just back of the
center of the body and is not very large;
it is composed of soft rays, the first two
being stiff and unbranched. The tail is
long, large, graceful and deeply notched.
The anal fin is almost as large as the dor-
sal. The ventral pair is placed on the lower
side, opposite the dorsal fin; the pectorals
are set at the lower margin of the body,
just behind the gill openings. The shiner
and its relatives use the pectoral fins to
aid in swimming, and keep them con-
stantly in motion when moving through
the water. The ventrals are moved only
now and then and evidently help in keep-
ing the balance. When the fish moves
rapidly forward, the dorsal fin is raised so
that its front edge stands at right angles to
the body and the ventral and anal fins are
expanded to their fullest extent. But when
the fish is lounging, the dorsal, anal, and
ventral fins are more or less closed, al-
though the tip of the dorsal fin swings
with every movement of the fish.
The eyes are large, the pupils being
very large and black; the iris is pale yellow
FISHES
155
and shining; the whole eye is capable of 4. Describe or sketch the fish, showing
much movement forward and back. The
nostril is divided by a little projecting par-
tition which looks like a tubercle. The
mouth is at the front of the head; to see
the capabilities of this mouth, watch the
shiner yawn, if the water of the aquarium
becomes stale. Poor fellow! He yawns just
as we do in the effort to get more oxygen.
The shiners are essentially brook fish
although they may be found in larger
bodies of water. They lead a precarious
existence, for the larger fish eat them in all
their stages. They hold their own only by
laying countless numbers of eggs. They
feed chiefly on water insects, algse, and
fish eggs, including their own. They are
pretty and graceful little creatures and
may be seen swimming up the current in
the middle of the brook. They often oc-
cur in schools or flocks, especially when
young.
SUGGESTED READING — BacJcyard Ex-
ploration, by Paul G. Howes; The Pet
Boole, by Anna B. Comstock; also, read-
ings on page 144.
LESSON 39
THE SHINER
LEADING THOUGHT — The shiners are
among the most common of the little fish
in our small streams. They are beautiful
in form and play an important part in the
life of our streams.
METHOD — Place in the aquarium shin-
ers and as many as possible of the other
species of small fish found in our creeks
and brooks. The aquarium should stand
where the pupils may see it often. The fol-
lowing questions may be asked, giving the
children time for the work of observation.
OBSERVATIONS — i . What is the shape
of the shiner's body when seen from
above? When seen from the side? Do you
think that its shape fits it for moving rap-
idly through the water?
2. What is the coloring above? On the
sides? Below?
3. Are the scales large and distinct, or
very small? Can you see the lateral line?
Where are the tiny holes which make this
line placed in the scales?
position, relative size, and shape of all the
fins and the tail.
5. Describe the use and movements of
each of the fins when the fish is swim-
ming.
6. Describe the eyes. Do they move?
7. Describe the nostrils. Do you think
each one is double?
8. Does the mouth open upward, down-
ward, or forward? Have you ever seen the
shiner yawn? Why does it yawn? Why do
you yawn?
9. Where do you find the shiners liv-
ing? Do they haunt the middle of the
stream or the edges? Do you ever see them
in flocks or schools?
MINNOWS
How silent comes the water round that
bend;
Not the minutest whisper does it send
To the o'er-hanging sallows; blades of grass
Slowly across the chequered shadows pass,
Why, you might read two sonnets, ere
they reach
To where the hurrying freshnesses aye
preach
A natural sermon o'er their pebbly beds;
Where swarms of minnows show their lit-
tle heads,
Staying their wavy bodies 'gainst the
streams,
To taste the luxury of sunny beams
Tempered with coolness. How they ever
wrestle
With their own sweet delight, and ever
nestle
Their silver bellies on the pebbly sand/
If you but scantily hold out the hand,
That very instant not one will remain;
But turn your eye, and there they are
again.
The ripples seem right glad to reach those
cresses,
And cool themselves among the em'rald
tresses;
The while they cool themselves, they
freshness give,
And moisture, that the bowery green may
live.
— JOHN KEATS
i56
ANIMALS
State of New York Conservation Department
The brook trout
Salvelinus f ontinalis
THE BROOK TROUT
Up and down the brook I ran, where beneath the banks so steep,
Lie the spotted trout asleep. — WHITTIER
But they were probably not asleep, as
Mr. Whittier might have observed if he
had cast a fly near one of them. There is
in the very haunts of the trout a sugges-
tion of where it gets its vigor and wariness :
the cold, clear streams where the water
is pure; brooks that wind in and out over
rocky and pebbly beds, here shaded by
trees and there dashing through the open
— it makes us feel vigorous even to think
of such streams. Under the overhanging
bank or in the shade of some fallen log
or shelving rock, the brook trout hides
where he may see all that goes on in the
world above and around him without be-
ing himself seen. Woe to the unfortu-
nate insect that falls upon the surface of
the water in his vicinity or even flies low
over it, for the trout will easily jump far
out of the water to seize its prey It is
this habit of taking the insect upon and
above the water's surface which has made
trout fly-fishing the sport that it is. Man's
ingenuity is fairly matched against the
trout's cunning in this contest. I know of
one old trout that has kept fishermen in
the region around on the qui vive for
years; and up to date he is still alive, mak-
ing a dash now and then at a tempting
bait, showing himself enough to tantalize
his would-be captors with his splendid
size, but always retiring at the sight of the
line.
The brook trout varies much in color,
depending upon the soil and the rocks of
the streams in which it lives. Its back is
marbled with dark olive or black, mak-
ing it just the color of shaded water. This
marbled coloration also marks the dorsal
and the tail fins. The sides, which vary
much in color, are marked with beautiful
vermilion spots, each placed in the center
of a larger, bluish spot. In some instances
the lower surface is reddish, in others
whitish. All the fins on the lower side
of the body have the front edges creamy
or yellowish white, with a darker streak
behind.
The trout's head is quite large and
somewhat blunt. The large eye is a little
in front of the middle of the head. The
dorsal fin is at about the middle of the
body, and when raised is squarish in out-
line. Behind the dorsal fin and near the
tail is the little, fleshy adipose fin, so called
because its tissue is more or less adipose
in nature. The tail is fan-shaped, slightly
notched at the end and is large and strong.
FISHES
The anal fin is rather Iarge? being shaped
much like the dorsal fin, only slightly
smaller. The ventral fins are directly be-
low the dorsal fin and a little behind its
middle. The pectorals are low down, being
below and just behind the gill arches.
In size the brook trout may reach four-
teen inches, but the majority of those
caught are seldom longer than seven or
eight inches. It does not flourish in water
which is warmer than 70° Fahrenheit,
and prefers a temperature of about 50°
Fahrenheit. It must have the pure water
of mountain streams and cannot endure
the water of rivers which is polluted by
mills or the refuse of cities. Where it has
access to streams that flow into the ocean,
it forms the salt-water habit, going out
to sea and remaining there during the
winter. Such specimens become very
large.
The trout can lay eggs when about six
inches in length. The eggs are laid from
September until late November in most
parts of the United States. One small
mother trout lays from 400 to 600 eggs,
but the large-sized ones lay more. The pe-
riod of hatching depends upon the tem-
perature of the water. In depositing their
eggs the trout seek water with a gravelly
bottom, often where some spring enters
into a stream. The nest is shaped by the
tail of the fish, the larger stones being car-
ried away in the mouth. To make the pre-
Verne Morton
When resting on a stream bed trout face into
the current
Where the trout live
cious eggs secure they are covered with
gravel.
Strict laws have been enacted by almost
all of our states to protect the brook trout
and preserve it in our streams. While it is
true that brook trout spawn when five to
six inches in length, the legal size in most
states is six to seven inches; this gives
them a chance to spawn at least about
once before being caught. It is the duty of
every decent citizen to abide by these laws
and to see to it that his neighbors observe
them. The teacher cannot emphasize
enough to the child the moral value
of being law-abiding. There should be in
every school in the Union children's
clubs which should have for their pur-
pose civic honesty and the enforcement
of laws which affect the city, village, or
township.
Almost any stream with suitable water
may be stocked with trout from the na-
tional or the state hatcheries, but what
is the use of this expense if the game
laws are not observed and these fish are
caught before they reach maturity, as is
so often the case?
SUGGESTED READING — Along the Brook,
by Raymond T. Fuller; Backyard Explora-
i58
ANIMALS
tion, by Paul G. Howes; Mountain Neigh-
bors, by Edith M. Patch and Carroll L.
Fenton (Rainbow Trout) ; The Watchers
of the Trails, by Charles G. D. Roberts;
also, readings on page 144.
LESSON 40
THE BROOK TROUT
LEADING THOUGHT — The brook trout
have been exterminated in many streams
in our country largely because the game
laws were passed too late to save them;
and because of misuse of our waters. The
trout is one of the most cunning and beau-
tiful of our common fishes and the most
delicious for food. Many mountain
streams in our country could be well
stocked with brook trout.
METHOD — For this lesson secure a
trout from a fisherman at the opening of
trout season. In some states, a permit is
required before a trout may be legally kept
in captivity, unless it is a legally captured
specimen and is kept only during fishing
season.
OBSERVATIONS — i. In what streams are
the brook trout found? Must the water be
warm or cold? Can the trout live in im-
pure water? Can it live in salt water?
2. Do the trout swim about in schools
or do they live solitary? Where do they
like to hide?
3. With what kind of bait are trout
caught? Why do they afford such excel-
lent sport for fly-fishing? Can you tell what
the food of the trout is?
4. What is the color of the trout above?
What colors along its sides? What mark-
ings make the fish so beautiful? What is
its color below? Has the trout scales? Do
you see the lateral line?
5. What is the general shape of the
brook trout? Describe the shape, position,
and color of the dorsal fin. Describe the
little fin behind the dorsal. Why is it un-
like the other fins? What is the shape of
the tail fin? Is it rounded, square, or cres-
cent-shaped across the end? What is the
position and size of the anal fin compared
with the dorsal? What are the colors on
the ventral fins and where are these fins
placed in relation to the dorsal fin? What
color are the pectoral fins and how are
they placed in relation to the gill arches?
6. Describe the trout's eyes. Do you
think the trout is keen-sighted?
7. When and where are the eggs laid?
Describe how the nest is made. How are
the eggs covered and protected?
8. Could a trout live in the streams of
your neighborhood? Can you get state aid
in stocking the streams?
9. What are the game laws concerning
trout fishing? When is the open season?
How long must the trout be to be taken
legally? If you are a good citizen what do
you do about the game laws?
10. Write a story telling all you know
about the wariness, cunning, and strength
of the brook trout.
TROUT
It is well for anglers not to make trout,
of all fishes, the prime objective of a day's
sport, as no more uncertain game loves the
sunlight. Today he is yours for the very
asking; tomorrow, the most luscious lure
will not tempt him. One hour he defies
you, the next, gazes at you from some en-
sconcement of the fishes, and knows you
not, as you pass him, casting, by.
I believe I accumulated some of this
angling wisdom years ago, in a certain
trout domain in New England, where
there were streams and pools, ripples, cas-
cades and drooping trees; where every-
thing was fair and promising to the eyes
for trout; but it required superhuman pa-
tience to lure them, and many a day I
scoreda blank. Yet on these very days when
lures were unavailing, the creel empty
save for fern leaves, I found they were
not for naught; that the real fishing day
was a composite of the weather, the wind,
even if it was from the east, the splendid
colors of forest trees, the blue tourmaline
of the sky that topped the stream amid the
trees, the flecks of cloud mirrored on
the surface. The delight of anticipation,
the casting, the play of the rod, the exer-
cise of skill, the quick turns in the stream
opening up new vistas, the little openings
in the forest, through which were seen dis-
FISHES
tant meadows and nodding flowers — all
these went to make up the real trout fish-
ing, the actual catch being but an incident
among many delights.
Just how long one could be content
with mere scenery in lieu of trout, I am
not prepared to say; if pushed to the wall,
I confess that when fishing I prefer trout
to scenic effects. Still, it is a very imprac-
ticable and delightful sentiment with
some truth to it, the moral being that the
angler should be resourceful, and not be
entirely cast down on the days when the
wind is in the east.
I am aware that this method of angling
is not in vogue with some, and would be
deemed fanciful, indeed inane, by many
more; yet it is based upon a true and
homely philosophy, not of today, the phi-
losophy of patience and contentment.
" How poor are they that have not pa-
tience/7 said Othello. It is well to be con-
tent with things as we find them, and it is
well to go a-fishing, and not to catch fish
alone, but every offering the day has to
give. This should be an easy matter for the
angler, as Walton tells us that Angling
is somewhat like poetry; men are to be
born so.
— " FISH STORIES/' HOLDER AND JORDAN
j
State of New York Conservation Department
Brook stickleback and nest
Eucalia inconstans
THE STICKLEBACK
This is certainly the most sagacious of
the Lilliputian vertebrates; scarcely more
than an inch in length when full-grown,
it gazes at you with large, keen, shining-
rimmed eyes, takes your measure and darts
off with a flirt of the tail that says plainly,
" Catch me if you can/' The sticklebacks
are delightful aquarium pets because their
natural home is in still water sufficiently
stagnant for algae to grow luxuriously; thus
we but seldom need to change the water
in the aquarium, which, however, should
be well stocked with water plants and have
gravel at the bottom.
i6o
ANIMALS
When the stickleback is not resting, he
is always going somewhere and he knows
just where he is going and what he is going
to do, and earthquakes shall not deter
him. He is the most dynamic creature in
all creation, I think, except perhaps the
dragon fly, and he is so ferocious that if
he were as large as a shark he would de-
stroy all other fishes. His ferocity is fright-
ful to behold as he seizes his prey and
shakes it as a terrier does a rat.
Well is this fish named stickleback, for
along the ridge of its back are sharp, strong
spines — five of them in our tiny brook
species. These spines may be laid back flat
or they may be erected stiffly, making an
efficient saw which does great damage to
fish many times larger than the stickle-
back. When we find the minnows in the
aquarium losing their scales, we may be
sure they are being raked off by this saw-
back; and if the shiner or sunfish under-
takes to make a stickleback meal, there is
only one way to do it, and that is to catch
the quarry by the tail, since he is too alert
to be caught in any other way. But swal-
lowing a stickleback tail first is a danger-
ous performance, for the sharp spines rip
open the throat or stomach of the captor.
Dr. Jordan says that the sticklebacks of
the Puget Sound region are called " sal-
mon killers " and that they well earn the
name; these fierce midgets unhesitatingly
attack the salmon, biting off pieces of
their fins and also destroying their spawn.
As seen from the side, the stickleback
is slender and graceful, pointed like an
arrow at the front end, and with the body
behind the dorsal fin forming a long and
slender pedicel to support the beautifully
rounded tail fin. The dorsal fin is placed
well back and is triangular in shape; the
anal fin makes a similar triangle opposite
it below and has a sharp spine at its front
edge. The color of the body varies with
the light; when the stickleback is floating
among the water weeds, the back is green-
ish mottled with paler green, but when
the fish is down on the gravel, it is much
darker. The lateral line is marked by a
silver stripe.
If large eyes count for beauty, then the
stickleback deserves " the apple," for its
eyes are not only large but gemlike, with a
broad iris of golden brown around the
black pupil. I am convinced that the
stickleback has a keener vision than most
fish; it can move its eyes backward and
forward rapidly and alertly. The mouth
opens almost upward and is a wicked
little mouth, in both appearance and
action.
When swimming, the stickleback darts
about rapidly, its dorsal and anal fins ex-
tended, its spines all abristle, and its tail
lashing the water with strong strokes.
When the fish wishes to lift itself through
the water, it seems to depend entirely
upon its pectoral fins and these are also
used for balancing. Its favorite position
is hanging motionless among the pond
weeds, with the tail and the dorsal and
ventral fins partially closed; it usually rests
upon the pectoral fins which are braced
against some stem; in one case I saw the
ventrals and pectorals used together to
clasp a stem and hold the fish in place. In
moving backward the pectorals do the
work, with a little beckoning motion of
the tail occasionally. When resting upon
the bottom of the aquarium, it closes its
fins and makes itself quite inconspicuous.
It can dig with much power, accomplish-
ing this by a comical auger-like motion; it
plunges head first into the gravel and then,
by twisting the body and tail around and
around, it soon forms a hiding place.
But it is as house builder and father
and home protector that the stickleback
shines. In the early spring he builds him a
nest made from the fine green algas called
frog-spittle. This would seem too delicate
a material for the house construction, but
he is a clever builder. He fastens his filmy
walls to some sterns of reed or grass, using
as a platform a supporting stem; the ones
which I have especially studied were fas-
tened to grass stems. The stickleback has
a little cement plant of his own, supposed
to be situated in the kidneys, which at this
time of year secretes the glue for building
purposes. The glue is waterproof. It is
spun out in fine threads or in filmy masses
through an opening near the anal fin. One
FISHES
161
species weights his platform with sand
which he scoops up from the bottom, but
I cannot detect that our brook stickleback
does this. In his case, home is his sphere
literally, for he builds a spherical house
about the size of a glass marble, three-
quarters of an inch in diameter. It is a
hollow sphere; he cements the inside
walls so as to hold them back and give
room, and he finishes his pretty structure
with a circular door at the side. When fin-
ished, the nest is like a bubble made of
threads of down, and yet it holds to-
gether strongly.
In the case of the best-known species,
the male, as soon as he has finished his
bower to his satisfaction, goes a-wooing;
he selects some lady stickleback, and in his
own way tells her of the beautiful nest he
has made and convinces her of his ability
to take care of a family. He certainly has
fetching ways, for he soon conducts her to
his home. She enters the nest through the
little circular door, lays her eggs within it,
and then, being a flighty creature, she
sheds responsibilities and flits off carefree.
He follows her into the nest, scatters the
fertilizing milt over the eggs, and then
starts off again and rolls his golden eyes on
some other lady stickleback and invites
her also to his home. She comes without
any jealousy because she was not first
choice; she also enters the nest and
lays her eggs and then swims off uncon-
cernedly. Again he enters the nest and
drops more milt upon the eggs and then
fares forth again, a still energetic wooer.
If there was ever a justified polygamist, he
is one, since it is only the cares and respon-
sibilities of the home that he desires. He
only stops wooing when his nest holds as
many eggs as he feels equal to caring for.
He now stands on guard by the door, and
with his winnowing pectoral fins sets up a
current of water over the eggs; he drives off
all intruders with the most vicious attacks,
and keeps off many an enemy simply by a
display of reckless fury; thus he stands
guard until the eggs hatch and the tiny
little sticklebacks come out of the nest
and float off, attaching themselves by
their mouths to the pond weeds until they
become strong enough to scurry around in
the water.
Some species arrange two cloors in this
spherical nest so that a current of water
can flow through and over the eggs. Mr.
Eugene Barker, who has made a special
study of the little brook sticklebacks of the
Cayuga Basin, has failed to find more than
one door to their nests. Mr. Barker made a
most interesting observation on this stick-
leback's obsession for fatherhood. He
placed in the aquarium two nests, one of
which was still guarded by its loyal
builder, who allowed himself to be caught
N. Y. State Conservation Dept.
Horned dace
Semotilus atromaculatus
rather than desert his post; the little
guardian soon discovered the unprotected
nest and began to move the eggs from it to
his own, carrying them carefully in his
mouth. This addition made his own nest
so full that the eggs persistently crowded
out of the door, and he spent much of his
time nudging them back with his snout.
We saw this stickleback fill his mouth
with algae from the bottom of the aquar-
ium and holding himself steady a short
distance away, apparently blow the algae
at the nest from a distance of half an
inch; we wondered if this was his method
of laying on his building materials before
he cemented them.
The eggs of this species are white and
shining like minute pearls, and seem to be
fastened together in small packages with
gelatinous matter. The mating habits of
this species have not been thoroughly
studied; therefore, here is an opportunity
for investigation on the part of the boys
and girls. The habits of other species of
sticklebacks have been studied more than
have those of the brook stickleback.
SUGGESTED READING — Pathways in Sci-
ence, by G. S. Craig and Co-authors,
162
ANIMALS
Book 3, Our Wide, Wide World; The
Pet Book, by Anna B. Comstock; The
Pond Book, by Walter P. Porter and Ei-
nar A. Hansen; also, readings on page 144.
N. Y. State Conservation Dept.
A sculpin
Cottus cognatus
LESSON 41
THE STICKLEBACK
LEADING THOUGHT — The stickleback
is the smallest of our common fish. It lives
in stagnant water. The father stickleback
builds his pretty nest of algas and watches
it very carefully.
METHOD — To find sticklebacks go to a
pond of stagnant water which does not
dry up during the year. If it is partly
shaded by bushes, so much the better.
Take a dip net and dip deeply; carefully
examine all the little fish in the net by
putting them in a Mason jar of water so
that you can see what they are like. The
stickleback is easily distinguished by the
five spines along its back. If you collect
these fish as early as the first of May and
place several of them in the aquarium
with plenty of the algas known as frog-
spittle and other water plants they may
perhaps build a nest for you. They may be
fed upon bits of meat or liver chopped
very fine or upon earthworms cut into
small sections.
OBSERVATIONS — i. How did the stick-
leback gets its name? How many spines
has it? Where are they situated? Are they
always carried erect? How are these spines
used as weapons? How do they act as a
means of protection to the stickleback?
2. Describe or make a sketch showing
the shape and position of the dorsal, the
anal, the ventral, and the pectoral fins.
What is the shape of the tail? What is the
general shape of the fish?
3. What is the color of the stickle-
backs? Is the color always the same? What
is the color and position of the lateral line?
4. Describe the eyes. Are they large or
small? Can they be moved? Do you think
they can see far?
5. Describe the mouth. Does it open
upward, straight ahead, or downward?
6. When the stickleback is swimming,
what are the positions and motions of the
dorsal, anal, tail, and pectoral fins? Can
you see the ventral pair? Are they ex-
tended when the fish is swimming?
7. When resting among the pond weed
of the aquarium what fins does the stick-
leback use for keeping afloat? How are the
other fins held? What fins does it use to
move backward? Which ones are used
when it lifts itself from the bottom to the
top of the aquarium? How are its fins
placed when it is at rest on the bottom?
8. Drop a piece of earthworm or some
liver or fresh meat cut finely into the
aquarium and describe the action of the
sticklebacks as they eat it. How large is a
full-grown stickleback?
9. In what kind of ponds do we find
sticklebacks? Do you know how the stick-
leback nest looks? Of what is it built?
How is it supported? Is there one door or
two? Does the father or mother stickle-
back build the nest? Are the young in the
nest cared for? At what time is the nest
built?
THE SUNFISH
This little disc of gay color has won
many popular names. It is called pump-
kinseed, tobacco box, and sunfish because
of its shape, and it is also called bream and
pondfish. I have always wondered that it
was not called chieftain also, for when it
raises its dorsal fin with its saw crest of
spines, it looks like the headdress of an
Indian chief; and surely no warrior ever
had a greater enjoyment in a battle than
does this indomitable little fish.
The sunfish lives in the eddies of our
FISHES
163
State of New York Conservation Department
Sunfish or pumpkinseed
Eupomotis gibbosus
clear brooks and ponds. It is a near rela-
tive of the rock bass and also of the black
bass and it has, according to its size, just
as gamy qualities as the latter. I once had
a sunfish on my line which made rne think
I had caught a bass and I do not know
whether I or the mad little pumpkinseed
was the more disgusted when I discovered
the truth. I threw him back in the water,
but his fighting spirit was up and he
grabbed my hook again within five min-
utes, which showed that he had more
courage than wisdom; it would have
served him right if I had fried him in a
pan, but I never could make up my mind
to kill a fish for the sake of one mouthful
of food.
Perhaps of all its names, ''pumpkin-
seed " is the most graphic, for it resembles
this seed in the outlines of its body when
seen from the side. Looked at from above,
it has the shape of a powerful craft with
smooth, rounded nose and gently swelling
and tapering sides; it is widest at the eyes
and this is a canny arrangement, for these
great eyes turn alertly in every direction;
and thus placed they are able to discern
the enemy or the dinner coming from any
quarter.
The dorsal fin is a most militant looking
organ. It consists of ten spines, the hind
one closely joined to the hind dorsal fin,
which is supported by the soft rays. The
three front spines rise successively, one
above another, and all are united by the
membrane, the upper edge of which is
deeply toothed. The hind dorsal fin is
gracefully rounded and the front and hind
fin work independently of each other, the
latter often winnowing the water when
the former is laid flat. The tail is strong
and has a notch in the end; the anal fin
has three spines on its front edge and ten
soft rays. Each ventral fin also has a spine
at the front edge and is placed below and
slightly behind the pectorals. The pecto-
ral fins, I have often thought, are the most
exquisite and gauzelike in texture of all
the fins I have ever seen; they are kept al-
most constantly in motion and move in
such graceful flowing undulations that it
is a joy to look at them.
164
ANIMALS
The eye of the sunfish is very large
and quite prominent; the large black pupil
is surrounded by an iris that has shining
lavender and bronze in it, but is more or
less clouded above; the young ones have
a pale silver iris. The eyes move in every
direction and are eager and alert in their
expression. The mouth is at the front of
the body but it opens upward. The gill
opening is prolonged backward at the up-
per corner, making an earlike flap; this, of
course, has nothing to do with the fish's
ears, but it is highly ornamental, as it is
Male sunfish guarding his nest
greenish-black in color, bordered by irides-
cent, pale green, with a brilliant orange
spot on its hind edge. The colors of the
sunfish are too varied for description and
too beautiful to reduce to mere words.
There are dark, dull, greenish or purplish
cross-bands worked out in patterns of
scale-mosaic, and between them are bands
of pale, iridescent green, set with black-
edged orange spots. But just as we have
described his colors our sunfish darts off
and all sorts of shimmering, shining blue,
green and purple tints play over his body;
and as he settles down into another corner
of the aquarium, his colors seem much
paler and we have to describe him over
again. The body below is brassy yellow.
The beautiful colors which the male
sunfish dons in spring, he puts at once to
practical use. Professor Reighard says that
when courting and trying to persuade his
chosen one to come to his nest and there
deposit her eggs, he faces her, with his
gill covers puffed out, the scarlet or orange
spot on the ear-flap standing out bravely,
and his black ventral fins spread wide to
show off their patent-leather finish. Thus
does he display himself before her and in-
timidate her; but he is rarely allowed to
do this in peace. Other males as brilliant
as he arrive on the scene and he must
forsooth stop parading before his lady love
in order to fight his rival, and he fights
with as much display of color as he courts.
In the sunfish duel, however, the partici-
pants do not seek to destroy each other but
to intimidate each other. The vanquished
one retires. Professor Gill says: "Mean-
while the male has selected a spot in very
shallow water near the shore, and gener-
ally in a mass of aquatic vegetation, not
too large or close together to entirely ex-
clude the light and heat of the sun, and
mostly under an overhanging plant. The
choice is apt to be in some general strip
of shallow water close by the shore which
is favored by many others so that a num-
ber of similar nests may be found close to-
gether, although never encroaching on
each other. Each fish slightly excavates
and makes a saucer-like basin in the chosen
area which is carefully cleared of all peb-
bles. Such are removed by violent jerks of
the caudal fin or are taken up by the
mouth and carried to the circular bound-
ary of the nest. An area of fine, clean sand
or gravel is generally the result, but not
infrequently, according to Dr. Reighard,
the nest bottom is composed of the root-
lets of water plants. The nest has a diam-
eter of about twice the length of the fish."
On the nest thus formed, the sunfish
belle is invited to deposit her eggs, which
as soon as laid fall to the bottom and be-
come attached to the gravel at the bottom
of the nest by the viscid substance which
surrounds them. Her duty is then done
and she departs, leaving the master in
charge of his home and the eggs. If truth
be told, he is not a strict monogamist.
Professor Reighard noticed one of these
males which reared in one nest two broods
laid at quite different times by two fe-
males. For about a week, depending upon
PISHES
the temperature, the male is absorbed in
his care of the eggs and defends his nest
with much ferocity; but after the eggs
have hatched he considers his duty done
and lets his progeny take care of" them-
selves as best they may.
Sunfish are easily taken care of in an
aquarium, but each should be kept by
himself, as they are likely to attack any
smaller fish and are most uncomfortable
neighbors. I have kept one of these beauti-
165
2. What is the general shape of the
sunfish's body as seen from above? As
seen from the side? Why is it called pump-
kinseed?
3. Describe the dorsal fin. How many
spines has it? How many soft rays? What
is the difference in appearance between
the front and hind dorsal fin? Do the
two act together or separately? Describe
the tail fin. Describe the anal fin. Has it
any spines? If so, where are they? Where
ful, shimmering pumpkinseeds for nearly are the ventral fins in relation to the pec-
a year by feeding him every alternate
day with an earthworm; the unfortunate
worms are kept stored in damp soil in an
iron kettle during the winter. When I
threw one of them into the aquarium the
sunfish would seize it and shake it as a
terrier shakes a rat; but this was perhaps
to make sure of his hold. Once he at-
tempted to take a second worm directly
after the first; but it was a doubtful pro-
ceeding, and the worm reappeared as often
as a prima donna, waving each time a fren-
zied farewell to the world.
SUGGESTED READING— Along the Brook,
by Raymond T. Fuller; Backyard Explo-
ration, by Paul G. Howes; The Pet Book,
by Anna B. Comstock; also, readings on
page 144.
LESSON 42
THE SUNFISH
LEADING THOUGHT — The pumpkin-
seeds are very gamy little fishes which
seize the hook with much fierceness. They
live in the still waters of our streams or
in ponds and build nests in the spring,
in which the eggs are laid and which they
defend valiantly.
METHOD — The common pumpkinseed
in the jar aquarium is all that is neces-
sary for this lesson. However, it will add
much to the interest of the lesson if the
boys who have fished for pumpkinseeds
will tell of their experiences. The chil-
dren should acquire from this lesson
an interest in nesting habits of the sun-
fishes.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Where are the sun-
fish found? How do they act when they
take the hook?
torals? What is there peculiar about the
appearance and movements of the pec-
toral fins?
4. Describe the eye of the sunfish. Is
it large or small? Is 'it placed so that the
fish can see on each side? Does the eye
move in all directions?
5. Describe the position of the mouth.
In which direction does it open?
6. What is the color of the upper por-
tion of the gill opening or operculum?
What is the general color of the sunfish?
Above? Below? Along the sides? What
markings do you see?
7. Where does the sunfish make its
nest? Does the father or mother sunfish
make the nest? Does one or both protect
it? Describe the nest.
8. How many names do you know for
the sunfish? Describe the actions of your
sunfish in the aquarium. How does he act
when eating an earthworm?
The lamprey is not a fish at all, only a
wicked imitation of one which can deceive
nobody. But there are fishes which are un-
questionably fish — fish from gills to tail,
from head to fin, and of these the little
sunfish may stand first. He comes up the
brook in the spring, fresh as " coin just
from the mint/' finny arms and legs wide
spread, his gills moving, his mouth open-
ing and shutting rhythmically, his tail
wide spread, and ready for any sudden
motion for which his erratic little brain
may give the order. The scales of the sun-
fish shine with all sorts of scarlet, blue,
green, and purple and golden colors.
There is a blaclc spot on his head which
looks like an ear, and sometimes grows out
i66
ANIMALS
in a long black flap, which makes the imi-
tation still closer. There are many species
of the sunfish, and there may be half a
dozen of them in the same brook, but
that makes no difference; for our purposes
they are all one.
They lie poised in the water, with all
fins spread, strutting like turkey-cocks,
snapping at worms and little crustaceans
and insects whose only business in the
brook is that the fishes may eat them.
When the time comes, the sunfish makes
its nest in the fine gravel, building it with
some care — for a fish. When the female
has laid her eggs the male stands guard
until the eggs are hatched. His sharp teeth
and snappish ways, and the bigness of his
appearance when the fins are all displayed,
keep the little fishes away. Sometimes, in
his zeal, he snaps at a hook baited with a
worm. He then makes a fierce fight, and
the boy who holds the rod is sure that he
has a real fish this time. But when the
sunfish is out of the water, strung on a
willow rod, and dried in the sun, the boy
sees that a very little fish can make a good
deal of a fuss.
— DAVID STARR JORDAN
State of New York Conservation Department
Johnny darter
Boleosoma nigrum
THE JOHNNY DARTER
We never tired of watching the little Johnny, or Tessellated darter (Boleosoma ni-
grum); although our earliest aquarium friend, (and the very first specimens showed
us by a rapid ascent of the river weed how " a Johnny could climb trees/') he has still
many resources which we have never learned. Whenever we try to catch him with the
hand we begin with all the uncertainty that characterized our first attempts, even if we
have him in a two-quart pail. We may know him by his short fins, his first dorsal having
but nine spines, and by the absence of all color save a soft, yellowish brown, which is
freckled with darker markings. The dark brown on the sides is'arranged in seven or eight
W-shaped marks, below which are a few flecks of the same color. Covering the sides of
the back are the wavy markings and dark specks which have given the name of the
" Tessellated Darter "; but Boleosoma is a preferred name, and we even prefer " boly "
for short. In the spring the males have the head jet black; and this dark color often ex-
tends on the back part of the body, so that the fish looks as if he had been taken by the
tail and dipped into a bottle of ink. But with the end of the nuptial season this color
disappears and the fish regains his normal, strawy hue.
His actions are rather bird-like; for he will strike attitudes like a tufted titmouse and
he flies rather than swims through the water. He will, with much perseverance, push
his body between a plant and the sides of the aquarium and balance himself on a slen-
FISHES
167
der stem. Crouching catlike before a snail shell, he will snap off a horn which the un-
lucky owner pushes timidly out. But he is also less dainty and seizing the animal by the
head, he dashes the shell against the glass or stones until he pulls the body out or
breaks the shell. — DAVID STARR JORDAN
The johnny darters are, with the stickle-
backs, the most amusing little fish in
the aquarium. They are well called darters
since their movements are so rapid when
they are frightened that the eye can
scarcely follow them; and there is some-
thing so irresistibly comical in their bright,
saucy eyes, placed almost on top of the
head, that no one could help calling one
of them " Johnny." A " johnny " will look
at you from one side, and then as quick
as a flash, will flounce around and study
you with the other eye and then come
toward you head-on so that he may take
you in with both eyes; he seems just as
interested in the Johnny out of the jar
as is the latter in the johnny within.
The johnny darter has a queerly shaped
body for a fish, for the head and shoulders
are the larger part of him — not that he
suddenly disappears into nothingness; by
no means! His body is long and very
slightly tapering to the tail; along his
lateral line he has a row of olive-brown
W's worked out in scale-mosaic; and he
has some other scale-mosaics also follow-
ing a pattern of angular lines and making
blotches along his back. The whole upper
part of his body is pale olive, which is a
good imitation of the color of the brook.
The astonished and anxious look on the
johnny darter's face comes from the pe-
culiar position of the eyes, which are set
in the top of his forehead; they are big,
alert eyes, with large black pupils, sur-
rounded by a shining, pale yellow line at
the inner edge of the green iris; and as the
pupil is not set in the center of the eye,
the iris above being wider than below,
the result is an astonished look, as from
raised eyebrows. The eyes move, often
so swiftly that it gives the impression of
winking. The eyes, the short snout, and
the wide mouth give johnny a decidedly
froglike aspect.
Although he is no frog, yet johnny
darter seems to be in a fair way to de-
velop something to walk upon. His pec-
toral fins are large and strong and the
ventral pair are situated very close to
them; when he rests upon the gravel he
supports himself upon one or both of
these pairs of fins. He rests with the pec-
toral fins outspread, the sharp points of
the rays taking hold of the gravel like
toenails and thus giving him the appear-
ance of walking on his fins; if you poke
him gently, you will find that he is very
firmly planted on his fins so that you can
turn him around as if he were on a pivot.
He also uses the pectorals for swimming
and jerks himself along with them in a
way that makes one wonder if he could
not swim well without any tail at all. The
tail is large and almost straight across
the end and is a most vigorous pusher.
There are two dorsal fins. The front one
has only spiny rays; when the fin is raised
it appears almost semicircular in shape.
The second dorsal fin is much longer, and
when lifted stands higher than the front
fin; its rays are all soft except the front
one. As soon as the johnny stops swim-
ming he shuts the front dorsal fin so that
it can scarcely be detected; when he is
frightened, his body lies motionless on the
bottom; this act always reminds one of
the "freezing" habit of the rabbit. But
johnny does not stay scared very long; he
lifts his head up inquisitively, stretching
up as far as he is able on his feet, that is,
his paired fins, in such a comical way that
one can hardly realize he is a fish.
The tail and the dorsal fin of the johnny
darter are marked with silver dots which
give them an exquisite spun-glass look;
they are as transparent as gauze.
The johnny darters live in clear, swift
streams where they rest on the bottom,
with the head upstream. Dr. Jordan has
said they can climb up water weed with
their paired fins. I have never observed
them doing this but I have often seen one
walk around the aquarium on his fins as if
i68
ANIMALS
they were little fan-shaped feet; and when
swimming he uses his fins as a bird uses
its wings. There are many species of dart-
ers, some of them the most brilliantly
colored of all our fresh-water fishes. The
darters are perchlike in form.
Dr. Jordan says of the breeding habits
of the darters: " On the bottom, among
the stones, the female casts her spawn.
Neither she nor the male pays any further
attention to it, but in the breeding season
the male is painted in colors as beautiful
as those of the wood warblers. When you
go to the brook in the spring you will
find him there, and if you catch him and
turn him over on his side you will see
the colors that he shows to his mate, and
which observation shows are most useful
in frightening away his younger rivals. But
do not hurt him. Put him back in the
brook and let him paint its bottom with
colors of a rainbow, a sunset or a garden
of roses. All that can be done with blue,
crimson and green pigments, in fish orna-
mentation, you will find in some brook in
which the darters live."
SUGGESTED READING— Along the Brook,
by Raymond T. Fuller; Nature and Sci-
ence Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Har-
rison E. Howe, Book 2, Outdoor Visits;
The Pet Boole, by Anna B. Comstock;
The Pond Book, by Walter P. Porter and
Einar A. Hansen; also, readings on page
144.
LESSON 43
JOHNNY DARTER
LEADING THOUGHT — The johnny darter
naturally rests upon the bottom of the
stream. It uses its two pairs of paired fins
somewhat as feet in a way interesting to
observe.
METHOD — Johnny darters may be
caught in nets with other small fish and
placed in the aquarium. Place one or two
of them in individual aquaria where the
pupils may observe them at their leisure.
They do best in running water.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Describe or sketch
the johnny darter from above. From the
side. Can you see the W-shaped marks
along its side? How is it colored above?
2. How are the pectoral fins placed?
Are they large or small? How are they
used in swimming? Where are the ventral
fins placed? How are the ventrals and
dorsals used together? When resting on
the bottom how are the pectoral fins used?
3. What is there peculiar about the
dorsal fins of the johnny darter? When he
is resting, what is the attitude of the dorsal
fins? What is the difference in shape of
the rays of the front and hind dorsal fins?
4. When resting on the bottom of the
aquarium how is the body held? On what
does it rest? In moving about the bottom
slowly why does it seem to walk? How
does it climb up water weed?
5. When frightened how does it act?
Why is it called a darter? What is the
attitude of all the fins when the fish is
moving swiftly?
6. What is the shape of the tail?
7. What is there peculiar about the eyes
of the johnny? Describe the eyes and their
position. What is there in the life of the
fish that makes this position of the eyes
advantageous?
8. Where do we find the johnny dart-
ers? In what part of the stream do they
live? Are they usually near the surface of
the water or at the bottom?
To my mind, the best of all subjects
for nature-study is a brook. It affords stud-
ies of many kinds. It is near and dear to
every child. It is an epitome of the nature
in which we live. In miniature, it illus-
trates the forces which have shaped much
of the earth's surface. It reflects the sky.
It is kissed by the sun. It is rippled by the
wind. The minnows play in the pools.
The soft weeds grow in the shallows. The
grass and the dandelions lie on its sunny
banks. The moss and the fern are shel-
tered in the nooks. It comes from one
knows not whence; it flows to one knows
not whither. It awakens the desire to ex-
plore. It is fraught with mysteries. It typi-
fies the flood of life. It goes on forever.
In other words, the reason why the
brook is such a perfect nature-study sub-
ject is the fact that it is the central theme
FISHES
169
in a scene of life. Living things appeal to
children.
Nature-study not only educates, but
it educates nature-ward; and nature is ever
our companion, whether we will or no.
Even though we are determined to shut
ourselves in an office, nature sends her
messengers. The light, the dark, the moon,
the cloud, the rain, the wind, the falling
leaf, the fly, the bouquet, the bird, the
cockroach — they are all ours.
If one is to be happy, he must be in
sympathy with common things. He must
live in harmony with his environment.
One cannot be happy yonder nor to-
morrow: he is happy here and now, or
never. Our stock of knowledge of com-
mon things should be great. Few of us
can travel. We must know the things at
home.
Nature-love tends toward naturalness,
and toward simplicity of living. It tends
country-ward. One word from the fields
is worth two from the city. " God made
the country.77
I expect, therefore, that much good will
come from nature-study. It ought to revo-
lutionize the school life, for it is capable
of putting new force and enthusiasm into
the school and the child. It is new, and
therefore, is called a fad. A movement is
a fad until it succeeds. We shall learn
much, and shall outgrow some of our pres-
ent notions, but nature-study has come to
stay. It is in much the same stage of de-
velopment that manual-training and kin-
dergarten work were twenty-five years ago.
We must take care that it does not crystal-
lize into science-teaching on the one hand,
nor fall into mere sentimentalism on the
other.
I would again emphasize the impor-
tance of obtaining our fact before we let
loose the imagination, for on this point
will largely turn the results — the failure
or the success of the experiment. We must
not allow our fancy to run away with us.
If we hitch our wagon to a star, we must
ride with mind and soul and body all alert.
When we ride in such a wagon, we must
not forget to put in the tail-board.
— " THE NATURE-STUDY IDEA,"
L. H. BAILEY
AMPHIBIANS
Especially during early spring, one is
likely to see many frogs, toads, and sala-
manders about ponds and other shallow
water. These animals are harmless crea-
tures; they do not bite and their chief
method of defense is to escape to some
place of concealment.
While there are exceptions to the gen-
eral rule, and great variations in the life
habits of these animals, it may be said
that they are fitted to spend certain pe-
riods of their lives on land and other peri-
ods in water. In general, the immature
stages are passed in or quite near water
and the young are commonly called tad-
poles. Of course, this means that the males
and females of most species must return
each year to the ponds, streams, or pools
for the purpose of mating. Eggs are laid
at once and usually hatch within a few
days; the length of time varies according
to the species and the weather conditions.
To this entire group of cold-blooded an-
imals the term amphibian is applied; this
term was selected because it really means
" double life " — these animals live part of
their lives on land and part in or quite
near water. The presence or absence of a
tail, during adult life, divides the amphibi-
ans into two more or less natural groups,
the tailed and the tailless amphibians.
SUGGESTED READING — Along Nature's
Trails, by Lillian C. Athey; Backyard Ex-
ploration, by Paul G. Howes; Field Boole
of Ponds and Streams, by Ann H. Morgan;
Our Great Outdoors, Reptiles, Amphibi-
ans and Fishes, by C. W. G. Eifrig; Out-
of -Doors, A Guide to Nature, by Paul B.
Mann and George T. Hastings; Reptiles
and Amphibians; Their Habits and Adap-
tations, by Thomas Barbour; The Stir of
Nature, by William H. Carr. (See also
the Bibliography in the back of this
book.)
THE TAILLESS AMPHIBIANS
This group includes the frogs and toads.
In attaining the adult stage these animals
lose their tadpole tails; but we do not
mean that the tail drops from the body;
rather let us say that it is absorbed by
the body before the animal reaches the
adult stage.
THE COMMON TOAD
The toad hopped by us with jolting springs. — AKERS
Whoever has not had a pet toad has
missed a most entertaining experience.
Toad actions are surprisingly interesting;
one of my safeguards against the blues is
the memory of the thoughtful way one
of my pet toads rubbed and patted its
stomach with its little hands after it had
swallowed a June bug. Toads do not make
warts upon attacking hands, neither do
they rain down nor are they found in the
bedrock of quarries; but they do have a
most interesting history of their own,
which is not at all legendary, and which
is very like a life with two incarnations.
TADPOLES
The mother toad lays her eggs in May
and June in ponds, or in the still pools,
along streams; the eggs are laid in long
strings of jelly-like substance, and are
AMPHIBIANS
171
dropped upon the pond bottom or at-
tached to water weeds; when first depos-
ited, the jelly is transparent and the little
black eggs can be plainly seen; but after
a day or two, bits of dirt accumulate upon
the jelly, obscuring the eggs. At first the
eggs are spherical, like tiny black pills;
but as they begin to develop, they elongate
and finally the tadpoles may be seen wrig-
gling in the jelly mass, which affords them
efficient protection. After four or five
days, the tadpoles usually work their way
out and swim away; at this stage, the only
way to detect the head is by the direction
of the tadpole's progress, since it naturally
goes head first. However, the head soon
becomes decidedly larger, although at first
it is not provided with a mouth; it has,
instead, a V-shaped elevation where the
mouth should be, which forms a sucker
secreting a sticky substance. By means of
this substance the tadpole attaches itself
to water weeds, resting head up. When
the tadpoles are two or three days old, we
can detect little tassels on either side of
The toad in various stages of development
from the egg to the adult
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Eggs of the spadefoot toad, Bufo com-
pactilis. Some toads lay as many as 8,000 eggs
in a season
the throat, which are the gills by which
the little creature breathes; the blood
passes through these gills, and is purified
by coming in contact with the air which
is mixed in the water. About ten days
later, these gills disappear beneath a mem-
brane which grows down over them; but
they are still used for breathing, simply
having changed position from the outside
to the inside of the throat. The water
enters the nostrils to the mouth, passes
through an opening in the throat and
flows over the gills and out through a little
opening at the left side of the body; this
opening or breathing-pore can be easily
seen in the larger tadpoles; and when the
left arm develops, it is pushed out through
this convenient orifice.
When about ten days old, the tadpole
has developed a small, round mouth
which is constantly in search of some-
thing to eat, and at the same time is con-
stantly opening and shutting to take in
air for the gills; the mouth is provided
with horny jaws for biting off pieces of
plants. As the tadpole develops, its mouth
gets larger and wider and extends back
beneath the eyes, with a truly toadlike
expansiveness.
At first, the tadpole's eyes are even with
the surface of the head and can scarcely
be seen, but later they become more prom-
inent and bulge like the eyes of the adult
toad.
The tail of the tadpole is long and flat,
surrounded by a fin, and so is an or-
gan for swimming. It strikes the water,
first this side and then that, making most
graceful curves, which seem to originate
ANIMALS
_ _
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Eggs of Hammond's spadefoot, Scaphiopus
hammondii. Although it looks so like our com-
mon toad} the spadefoot belongs to a different
genus; it lays its eggs in cylindrical masses on
submerged twigs or grass
near the body and multiply toward the
tip of the tail. This movement propels
the tadpole forward, or in any direction.
The tail is very thin when seen from
above; and it is amusing to look at a tad-
pole from above, and then at the side; it
is like squaring a circle.
There is a superstition that tadpoles
eat their tails; and in a sense this is true,
because the material that is in the tail is
absorbed into the growing body; but the
last thing a right-minded tadpole would
do would be to bite off its own tail. How-
ever, if some other tadpole should bite off
the tail or a growing leg, these organs
conveniently grow anew.
When the tadpole is a month or two
old, depending upon the species, its hind
legs begin to show; they first appear as
mere buds which finally push out com-
pletely. The feet are long and are pro-
vided with five toes, of which the fourth
is the longest; the toes are webbed so that
they may be used to help in swimming.
Two weeks later the arms begin to appear,
the left one pushing out through the
breathing-pore. The " hands " have four
fingers and are not webbed; they are used
in the water for balancing, while the hind
legs are used for pushing, as the tail be-
comes smaller.
As the tadpole grows older, not only
does its tail become shorter but its actions
change. It now comes often to the surface
of the water in order to get more air for
its gills, although it lacks the frog tad-
pole's nice adjustment of the growing
lungs and the disappearing gills. At last,
some fine rainy day, the little creature
feels that it is finally fitted to live the life
of a land animal. It may not be a half inch
in length, with big head, attenuated body,
and stumpy tail, but it swims to the shore,
lifts itself on its front legs, which are
scarcely larger than pins, and walks off,
toeing in, with a very grownup air; and
at this moment the tadpole attains toad-
ship. Numbers of tadpoles come out of
the water together, hopping hither and
thither with all of the eagerness and vim
of untried youth. It is through issuing
thus in hordes from the water that they
gain the reputation of being rained down,
when they really were rained up. It is quite
impossible for a beginner to detect the
difference between the toad and the frog
tadpole; usually those of the toads are
black, while those of the frogs are other-
wise colored, though this is not an in-
variable distinction. The best way to dis-
tinguish the two is to get the eggs and
develop the two families separately.
THE ADULT TOAD
The general color of the common
American toad is extremely variable. It
may be yellowish brown, with spots of
lighter color, and with reddish or yellow
warts. There are likely to be four irregu-
lar spots of dark color along each side of
the middle of the back, and the under
parts are light-colored, often somewhat
spotted. The throat of the male toad is
black and he is not so bright in color as is
the female. The warts upon the back are
glands, which secrete a substance disa-
AMPHIBIANS
greeable for the animal seeking toad din-
ners. This is especially true of the glands
in the elongated swellings above and just
back of the ear, which are called the pa-
rotid glands; these give forth a milky, poi-
sonous substance when the toad is seized
by an enemy, although the snakes do not
seem to mind it. Some people have an
idea that the toad is slimy, but this is not
true; the skin is perfectly dry. The toad
feels cold to the hand because it is a
cold-blooded animal, which means an ani-
mal with blood the temperature of the
surrounding atmosphere; the blood of the
warm-blooded animal has a temperature
of its own, which it maintains whether
the surrounding air is cold or hot.
The toad's face is well worth study; its
eyes are elevated and very pretty, the pupil
being oval and the surrounding iris shin-
ing like gold. The toad winks in a whole-
sale fashion, the eyes being pulled down
into the head; the eyes are provided with
nictitating lids, which rise from below,
and are similar to those found in birds.
When a toad is sleeping, its eyes do not
bulge but are drawn in, so as to lie even
with the surface of the head. The two
S. H. Gage
A common toad, Bufo americanus, as he
appears in winter sleep and after awakening
in the spring
A. A. and A. H. Wright
The giant toad, Bufo alvarius. This huge
toad of the Southwest is from 3^4 to 6%
inches long. If molested it will secrete a fluid
which is strong enough to paralyze a dog
tiny nostrils are black and are easily seen;
the ear is a flat, oval spot behind the eye
and a little lower down; in the common
species it is not quite so large as the eye;
this is really the eardrum, since there is
no external ear like ours. The toad's
mouth is wide and its jaws are horny; it
does not need teeth since it swallows its
prey whole.
The toad is a jumper, as may be seen
from its long, strong hind legs, the feet of
which are also long and strong and are
armed with five toes that are somewhat
webbed. The " arms " are shorter and
there are four " fingers " to each " hand ";
when the toad is resting, its front feet
toe-in in a comical fashion. If a toad is re-
moved from an earth or moss garden7
and put into a white wash-bowl, in a few
hours it will change to a lighter hue, and
vice versa. This is part of its protective
color, making it inconspicuous to the
eyes of its enemy. It prefers to live in
cool, damp places, beneath sidewalks or
porches, etc., and its warty upper surface
resembles the surrounding earth. If it is
disturbed, it will seek to escape by long
leaps, and acts frightened; but if very
much frightened, it flattens out on the
ground, and looks so nearly like a clod of
earth that it may escape even the keen
eyes of its pursuer. When seized by the
enemy, it will sometimes " play possum,"
acting as if it were dead; but when actually
in the mouth of the foe, it emits terrified
and heart-rending cries.
The toad's tongue is attached to the
ANIMALS
lower jaw, at the front edge of the mouth;
it can thus be thrust far out, and since
it secretes a sticky substance over its sur-
face, any insects which it touches adhere,
and are drawn back into the mouth
and swallowed. It takes a quick eye to see
this tongue fly out and make its catch.
The tadpole feeds mostly upon vegetable
matter, but the toad lives entirely upon
small animals, usually insects; it is not par-
ticular as to what kind of insects, but be-
A. A. and A. H. Wright
The little green toad, Bufo debilis. This
small amphibian, resembling a lichen in ap-
pearance, is about 1% inches long. It lives in
grassy ^ flat lands from Kansas and Colorado
south into northern Mexico
cause of the situations which it haunts, it
usually feeds upon those which are injuri-
ous to grass and plants. Indeed, the toad
is really the friend of the gardener and
the farmer, and has been most ungrate-
fully treated by those whom it has be-
friended. If you doubt that a toad is an
animal of judgment, watch it when it finds
an earthworm and set your doubts at rest!
It will walk around the squirming worm,
until it can seize it by the head, apparently
knowing well that the horny hooks ex-
tending backward from the segments of
the worm are likely to rasp the throat if
swallowed the wrong way. If the worm
prove too large a mouthful, the toad
promptly uses its hands in an amusing
fashion to stuff the wriggling morsel down
its throat. When swallowing a large
mouthful, it closes its eyes; but whether
this aids the process, or is merely an ex-
pression of bliss, we have not determined.
The toad never drinks by taking in water
through the mouth, but absorbs it through
the skin; when it wishes to drink, it
stretches itself out in shallow water and
thus satisfies its thirst; it will waste away
and die in a short time, if kept in a dry
atmosphere.
The toad burrows in the earth by a
method of its own, hard to describe. It
kicks backward with its strong hind legs,
and in some mysterious way, the earth
soon covers all excepting its head; then,
if an enemy comes along, back goes the
head, the earth caves in around it, and
where is your toad! It remains in its bur-
row or hiding place usually during the day,
and comes out at night to feed. This habit
is an advantage, because snakes are then
safely at home and, too, there are many
more insects to be found at night. The
sagacious toads have discovered that the
vicinity of street lights is swarming with
insects, and there they gather in numbers.
In winter they burrow deeply in the
ground and go to sleep, remaining dor-
mant until the warmth of spring awakens
them; then they come out, and the mother
toads seek their native ponds there to lay
eggs for the coming generation. They are
excellent swimmers; when they are swim-
ming rapidly, the front legs are laid back-
ward along the sides of the body, so as to
offer no resistance to the water; but when
they are moving slowly, the front legs
are used for balancing and for keeping
afloat.
The song of the toad is a pleasant,
crooning sound, a sort of guttural trill; it
is made when the throat is puffed out al-
most globular, thus forming a vocal sac;
the sound is made by the air drawn in at
the nostrils and passed back and forth
from the lungs to the mouth over the
vocal chords, the puffed-out throat acting
as a resonator.
The toad has no ribs by which to inflate
the chest, and thus draw air into the lungs,
as we do when we breathe; it is obliged
to swallow the air instead and thus force
it into the lungs. This movement is shown
in the constant pulsation, in and out, of
the membrane of the throat.
As the toad grows, it sheds its homy
AMPHIBIANS
skin, which it swallows; as this process is
usually done strictly in private, the ordi-
nary observer sees it but seldom. One of
the toad's nice common qualities is its
enjoyment in having its back scratched
gently.
The toad has many enemies; chief
among these is the snake and only less
so are crows and also birds of prey.
SUGGESTED READING — The Frog Book,
by Mary C. Dickerson; Handbook of
Frogs and Toads, by Anna A. and Albert
H. Wright; Mother Nature Series, by Fan-
nie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell, Book
2, By the Roadside; Nature and Science
Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison
E. Howe/Book i, Hunting; The Pond
Book, by Walter P. Porter and Einar A.
Hansen; Science Stories, by Wilbur L.
Beauchamp and Co-authors, Book i; also,
readings on page 170.
LESSON 44
THE TADPOLE AQUARIUM
LEADING THOUGHT — The children
should understand how to make the tad-
poles comfortable and thus be able to rear
them.
MATERIALS — A tin or agate pan, a deep
earthenware wash-bowl, a glass dish, or a
wide-mouthed glass jar.
THINGS TO BE DONE — i. Go to some
pond where tadpoles live.
2. Take some of the small stones on
the bottom and at the sides of the pond,
lifting them very gently so as not to dis-
turb what is growing on their surface.
Place these stones on the bottom of the
pan, building up one side higher than the
other, so that the water will be more shal-
low on one side than on the other; a
stone or two should project above the
water.
3. Take some of the mud and leaves
from the bottom of the pond, being care-
ful not to disturb them, and place upon
the stones.
4. Take some of the plants found grow-
ing under water in the pond and plant
them among the stones.
5. Carry the pan thus prepared back to
the schoolhouse and place it where the
sun will not shine directly upon it.
6. Bring a pail of water from the pond
and pour it very gently in at one side of
the pan, so as not to disarrange the plants;
fill the pan nearly to the brim.
7. After the mud has settled and the
water is perfectly clear, remove some of
the tadpoles which have hatched in the
glass aquarium and place them in the
" pond/' Not more than a dozen should
be put in a pan of this size, since the
amount of food and microscopic plants
which are on the stones in the mud will
afford food for only a few tadpoles.
8. Every week add a little more mud
from the bottom of the pond or another
stone covered with slime, which is prob-
ably some plant growth. More water from
the pond should be added to replace that
evaporated.
9. Care should be taken that the tad-
pole aquarium be kept where the sun will
not shine directly upon it for any length
of time, because if the water gets too
warm the tadpoles will die.
10. Pvemove the " skin " from one
side of a tulip leaf, so as to expose the
pulp of the leaf, and give to the tadpoles
every day or two. Bits of hard-boiled egg
should be given now and then.
TOADS' EGGS AND TADPOLES
LEADING THOUGHT — The toads' eggs
are laid in strings of jelly in ponds. The
eggs hatch into tadpoles which are crea-
tures of the water, breathing by gills, and
swimming with a long fin. The tadpoles
gradually change to toads, which are air-
breathing creatures, fitted for life on dry
land.
METHOD — The eggs of toads may be
found in almost any pond about the first
of May and may be scraped up from the
bottom in a scoop-net. They should be
placed in the aquarium where the children
can watch the stages of development.
Soon after they are hatched, a dozen or
so should be selected and placed in the
tadpole aquarium and the others put back
into the stream. The children should ob-
F. Harper and A. A. Wright
Southern toad, Bufo terrestris. When the
male is croaking his throat is puffed out as
in the picture. The color of the Southern toads
varies from red or gray to black, and in size
they range in length from 1% inches to 3%
inches. They are found from North Carolina
to Florida and west to the Mississippi River
serve the tadpoles every day, watching
carefully all the changes of structure and
habit which take place. If properly fed,
the tadpoles will be ready to leave the
water in July as tiny toads.
OBSERVATIONS — - 1 . Where were the
toads' eggs found and on what date? Were
they attached to anything in the water or
were they floating free? Are the eggs in
long strings? Do you find any eggs laid in
jelly-like masses? If so, what are they? How
can you tell the eggs of toads from those of
frogs?
2. Is the jelly-like substance in which
the eggs are placed clear or discolored?
What is the shape and the size of the eggs?
A little later how do they look? Do the
young tadpoles move about while they
are still in the jelly mass?
3. Describe how the little tadpole works
its way out from the jelly covering. Can
you distinguish then which is head and
which is tail? How does the tadpole act at
first? Where and how does it rest?
4. Can you see with the aid of a lens
the little fringes on each side of the neck?
What are these? Do these fringes dis-
appear a little later? Do they disappear
on both sides of the neck at once?
What becomes of them? How does the
tadpole breathe? Can you see the little
hole on the left side, through which the
water used for breathing passes?
ANIMALS
5. How does the tail look and how is
it used? How long is it in proportion to
the body? Describe the act of swimming.
6. Which pair of legs appears first?
How do they look? When they get a little
larger are they used as a help in swim-
ming? Describe the hind legs and feet.
7. How long after the hind legs appear
before the front legs or arms appear? What
happens to the breathing-pore when the
left arm is pushed through?
8. After both pairs of legs are developed
what happens to the tail? What becomes
of it?
9. When the tadpole is very young can
you see its eyes? How do they look as it
grows older? Do they ever bulge out like
toads' eyes?
10. As the tadpole gains its legs and
loses its tail how does it change in its
actions? How does it swim now? Does it
come oftener to the surface? Why?
11. Describe the difference between
the front and the hind legs and the front
and the hind feet on the fully grown tad-
pole. If the tail or a leg is bitten off by
some other creature will it grow again?
LESSON 45
THE TOAD
LEADING THOUGHT — The toad is col-
ored so that it resembles the soil and thus
often escapes the observation of its ene-
mies. It lives in damp places and eats
insects, usually hunting them at night. It
has powerful hind legs and is a vigorous
jumper.
METHOD — Make a moss garden in a
glass aquarium jar thus: Place some stones
or gravel in the bottom of the jar and
cover with moss. Cover the jar with a wire
screen. The moss should be deluged with
water at least once a day and the jar should
be placed where the direct sunlight will
not reach it. In this jar, place the toacl for
study.
OBSERVATIONS — i . Describe the gen-
eral color of the toad above and below.
How does the toad's back look? Of what
use are the warts on its back?
2. Where is the toad usually found?
AMPHIBIANS
177
Does it feel warm or cold to the hand? Is
it slimy or dry? The toad is a cold-blooded
animal; what does this mean?
3. Describe the eyes and explain how
their situation is of special advantage to
the toad. Do you think it can see in front
and behind and above all at the same
time? Does the bulge of the eyes help
in this? Note the shape and color of
the pupil and iris. How does the toad
wink?
4. Find and describe the nostrils. Find
and describe the ear. Note the swelling
above and just back of the ear. Do you
know the use of this?
5. What is the shape of the toad's
mouth? Has it any teeth? Is the toad's
tongue attached to the front or the back
part of the mouth? How is it used to catch
insects?
6. Describe the "arms and hands."
How many " fingers " on the " hand "?
Which way do the fingers point when the
toad is sitting down?
7. Describe the legs and feet. How
many toes are there? What is the relative
length of the toes and how are they con-
nected? What is this web between the
toes for? Why are the hind legs so much
larger than the front legs?
8. Will a toad change color if placed
upon different colored objects? How long
does it take it to do this? Of what advan-
tage is this to the toad?
9. Where does the toad live? When
it is disturbed how does it act? How far
can it jump? If very frightened does it
flatten out and lie still? Why is this?
10. At what time does the toad come
out to hunt insects? How does it catch
the insect? Does it swallow an earthworm
head or tail first? When swallowing an
earthworm or large insect, how does it
use its hands? How does it act when swal-
lowing a large mouthful?
11. How does the toad drink? Where
does it remain during the day? Describe
how it burrows into the earth.
12. What happens to the toad in the
winter? What does it do in the spring? Is
it a good swimmer? How does it use its
legs in swimming?
13. How does the toad look when
croaking? What sort of noise does it
make?
14. Describe the action of the toad's
throat when breathing. Did you ever see
a toad shed its skin?
15. What are the toad's enemies? How
does it act when caught by a snake? Does
it make any noise? Is it swallowed head
or tail first? What means has it of escap-
ing or defending itself from its enemies?
16. How is the toad of great use to the
farmer and gardener?
In the early years we are not to teach
nature as science, we are not to teach it
primarily for method or for drill: we are
to teach it for loving — and this is nature-
study. On these points I make no com-
promise. _L< H> BAILEY
THE SPRING PEEPER OR PICKERING'S HYLA
Ere yet the earliest warbler wakes, of coming spring to tell,
From every marsh a chorus breaks, a choir invisible,
As if the blossoms underground, a breath of utterance had found. — TABB
Associated with the first songs of robin
and bluebird, is the equally delightful
chorus of the spring peepers, yet how in-
frequently do most of us see a member
of this invisible choir! There are some
creatures which are the quintessence of
the slang word " cute," which, interpreted,
means the perfection of Lilliputian pro-
portions, permeated with undaunted
spirit. The chickadee is one of these, and
the spring peeper is another. I confess to
a thrill of delight when the Pickering's
hyla lifts itself on its tiny front feet, twists
its head knowingly, and turns on me the
full gaze of its bronze-rimmed eyes. This
is one of the tiniest f roglets of them all, be-
i78
ANIMALS
ing little more than an inch long when
fully grown; it wears the Greek cross in
A. A. and A. H. Wright
The spring peeper^ Hyla crucifer. Here is
shown the characteristic St. Andrew's cross
on the peeper's back. This small frog, measur-
ing % inch to 1% inches in length will be
found from Manitoba to Maine and south-
ward
darker color upon its back, with some
stripes across its long hind legs, which join
the pattern on the back when the frog
is " shut up/' as the boys say.
The reason we see so little of spring
peepers is that they are protected from
discovery by their color. They have the
chameleon power of changing color to
match their background. This change can
be effected in twenty minutes; the darker
lines forming the cross change first, giving
a mottled appearance which is at once pro-
tective. I have taken three of these peep-
ers, all of them pale yellowish brown with
gray markings, and have placed one upon
a fern, one on dark soil, and one on the
A. A. and A. H. Wright
The note of the male spring peeper is a
shrill, clear call and while it is being given his
throat expands into a large bubble
purple bud of a flower. Within half an
hour, each matched its surroundings so
closely that the casual eye would not
detect them. The song of the Pickering's
hyla is a resonant chirp, very stirring when
heard nearby; it sounds somewhat like the
note of a water bird. How such a small
creature can make such a loud noise is a
mystery. The process, however, may be
watched at night by the light of a flash-
light or lantern, as none of the peepers
seem to pay any attention to an artificial
light; the thin membrane beneath the
throat swells out until it seems almost
A. A. and A. H. Wright
The green tree frog} Hyla cinerea cinerea.
These frogs, 1% to 2% inches long are bright
green in color with a straw-colored stripe
along each side. On the tips of their toes are
discs which enable them to cling to vertical
surfaces. The green tree frogs are found from
Virginia to Texas and up the Mississippi
River to Illinois
large enough to balloon the little chap
off his perch. No wonder that, with such
a sounding-sac, the note is stirring.
The spring peepers have toes and fingers
ending in little round discs which secrete
at will a substance by means of which
they can cling to vertical surfaces, even
to glass. In fact, the time to study these
wonderful feet is when the frog is climb-
ing up the sides of the glass jar. The
fingers are arranged as follows: two short
inside ones, a long one, and another short
AMPHIBIANS
179
one outside. The hind feet have three
shorter inside toes quite far apart, a long
one at the tip of the foot and a shorter
one outside. When climbing a smooth
surface like glass, the toes are spread wide
apart, and there are other little clinging
discs on their lower sides, although not so
large as those at the tips. It is by means of
these sticky, disclike toes that the animals
hold themselves upon the tree trunks or
other upright objects.
The whole body of the tree frog, a rela-
tive of the spring peeper, is covered with
little tubercles, which give it a roughened
appearance. The eyes are black with the
iris of reddish color. The tongue is like
that of other frogs, hinged to the front of
the lower jaw; it is sticky and can be
thrust far out to capture insects, of which
the tree frogs eat vast numbers.
The spring peepers breathe by the rapid
pulsation of the membrane of the throat,
which makes the whole body tremble.
The nostrils are two tiny holes on either
side of the tip of the snout. The ears are
a little below and just behind the eyes, and
are in the form of circular discs.
The eggs of the spring peepers are laid
in ponds during April; each egg has a little
globe of jelly about it and is fastened to
a stone or a water plant. The tadpoles are
small and delicate; the under side of the
body is reddish and shines with metallic
.
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Common tree toad, Hyla versicolor versi-
color. From Maine and southern Canada to
the Gulf states is the range of these tree
toads; their habitat is trees, logs, or stone
fences. The color varies from ashy gray to
brown or green; on the back is an irregular
dark star. The eggs, in groups of thirty to
forty, are attached to vegetation at the sur-
face of the water
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Anderson tree jrog, Hyla andersonii. This
is a small, beautiful, green frog with a light-
bordered, plum-colored band along each side
of its body. It lives chiefly in white cedar
swamps from New Jersey to South Carolina
luster. These tadpoles differ from those of
other frogs in that they often leave the
water while the tail is still quite long. In
summer, they may be found among the
leaves and moss around the banks of
ponds. They are indefatigable in hunting
for gnats, mosquitoes, and ants; their de-
struction of mosquitoes, as pollywogs and
as grown up frogs, renders them of great
use to us. The voice of this peeper may be
occasionally heard among the shrubs and
vines or in trees during late summer and
until November. The little creatures sleep
beneath moss and leaves during the win-
ter, waking to give us the earliest news of
spring.
SUGGESTED READING — The Frog Book,
by Mary C. Dickerson; Handbook of
Frogs and Toads, by Anna A. and Albert
H. Wright; Mother Nature Series, by Fan-
nie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell, Book
3, In Field and Forest; The Pond Book,
by Walter P. Porter and Einar A. Hansen;
also, readings on page 170.
LESSON 46
SPRING PEEPER OR PICKERING'S HYLA
LEADING THOUGHT — The prettiest part
of the spring chorus of the frog ponds
is sung by the spring peepers. These little
frogs have the tips of their toes specially
fitted for climbing up the sides of trees.
METHOD — Make a moss garden in an
aquarium jar or a two-quart can. Place
stones in the bottom and moss at one side,
leaving a place on the other side for a
i8o
ANIMALS
tiny pond of water. In this garden place
a spring peeper, cover the jar with mos-
quito netting, and place in the shade.
The frogs may be found by searching the
banks of a pond at night with a lantern.
However, this lesson is usually given when
by accident the spring peeper is discov-
ered. Any species of tree frog will do;
but the Pickering's hyla, known every-
where as the spring peeper, is the most
interesting species to study.
OBSERVATIONS — i . How large is the
peeper? What is its color? Describe the
markings.
2. Place the peeper on some light-
colored surface like a piece of white
blotting paper. Note if it changes color
after a half hour. Later place it upon some
dark surface. Note if it changes color again.
How does this power of changing color
benefit the animal? Place a peeper on
a piece of bark. After a time does it be-
come inconspicuous?
3. Describe the eyes. Note how little
the creature turns its head to see any-
thing behind it. Describe its actions if its
attention is attracted to anything. What
color is the pupil? The iris?
4. Note the movement of breathing.
Where does this show the most? Exam-
ine the delicate membrane beneath the
throat. What has this to do with the
breathing?
5. What is the peeper's note? At what
time of day does it peep? At what time
of year? Describe how the frog looks when
peeping.
6. How does the peeper climb? When it
is climbing up a vertical surface study its
toes. How many on the front foot? How
are they arranged? How many toes on the
hind foot? Sketch the front and hind feet.
How do the toe-discs look when pressed
against the glass? How does it manage to
make the discs cling and then let go? Are
there any more discs on the under side
of the toes? Is there a web between the
toes of the hind feet? Of the front feet?
7. Look at a peeper very closely and
describe its nostrils and its ears.
8. Are the peepers good jumpers?
What is the size and length of the hind
legs as compared with the body?
9. When and where are the eggs of the
peeper laid? How do they look?
10. How do the peeper tadpoles differ
from other tadpoles? Describe them if
you have ever seen them. In what situa-
tions do they live?
11. Of what use are the peepers to us?
THE FROG
The stroller along brooksides is likely
to be surprised some day at seeing a bit
of moss and earth suddenly make a long,
high leap, without apparent provocation.
An investigation resolves the clump of
moss into a brilliantly green-spotted frog
with two light-yellow raised stripes down
his back; and then the stroller wonders
how he could have overlooked such an
obvious creature. But the leopard frog is
only obvious when it is out of its environ-
ment. The common green frog is quite
as well protected since its color is exactly
that of green pools. Most frogs spend
their lives in or about water, and if
caught on land they make great leaps
to reach their native element; the leopard
frog and a few other species, however,
sometimes wander far afield.
In form, the frog is more slim than the
toad, and is not covered with great warts;
it is cold and slippery to the touch. The
frog's only chance of escaping its enemies
is through the slipperiness of its body and
by making long, rapid leaps. As a jumper,
the frog is much more powerful than the
toad because its hind legs are so much
larger and more muscular, in comparison
with its size. The first toe in the front
foot of the male leopard frog is much
swollen, making a fat thumb; the me-
chanics of the hind legs make it possible
for the frog to feather the webbed feet
as it swims. On the bottom of the toes are
AMPHIBIANS
181
The bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana. This is our largest frog, sometimes attaining a length of
S inches. It is widely distributed east of the Rocky Mountains from Canada to Mexico. The
bullfrog has a greenish drab back and a yellowish underside. The eggs are laid in a film,
perhaps 2 feet square on the surface of still water. Its sonorous bass notes, jug-o'-rum, are
heard in the evenings of early summer
hardened places at the joints, and some-
times others besides, which give the foot
a strong hold when pushing for the jump.
The toe tips, when they are pressed against
the glass, resemble slightly the peepers7
discs. The hind foot is very long, while
on the front foot the toes radiate almost
in a circle. The foot and leg are colored
like the back of the body above, and on
the under side resemble the under parts.
The frog is likely to be much more
brightly colored than the toad, and usually
has much of green and yellow in its dress.
But the frog lives among green things,
while it is to the toad's advantage to be
the color of the soil. Frogs also have the
chameleon power of changing color to
harmonize with their environment. I have
seen a very green leopard frog change to
a slate-gray when placed upon slate-col-
ored rock. The change took place in the
green portions. The common green frog
will likewise change to slate-color, in a
similar situation. A leopard frog changed
quickly from dark green to pale olive,
when it was placed in the water after hav-
ing been on the soil.
The eyes of frogs are very prominent,
and are beautiful when observed closely.
The green frog has a dark bronze iris with
a gleaming gold edge around the pupil,
and around the outer margin. The eye of
the leopard frog is darker; the iris seems to
be black, with specks of ruddy gold scat-
tered through it, and there is an outer
band of red-gold around the margin.
When the frog winks, the nictitating
membrane rises from below and covers
the whole eye; and when the frog makes
a special effort of any sort, it has a comical
way of drawing its eyes back into its head.
When trying to hide at the bottom of
the aquarium, the leopard species lets the
eyelids fall over the eyes, so that they do
not shine up and attract pursuers.
The ear is in a similar position to that
of the toad, and in the bullfrog is larger
than the eye. In the green frog, it is a dull
grayish disc, almost as large as the eye.
In the leopard frog, it is not so large as
the eye, and may have a giltish spot at
the center.
The nostrils are small and are closed
when below the water, as may be easily
seen by a lens. The mouth opens widely,
the corners extending back under the eye.
182
ANIMALS
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Male green frog, Rana clamitans. These in-
habitants oj deep and shallow ponds are
found in eastern North America from Hudson
Bay to the Gulf. In the North they are among
the largest frogs, ranging jrom 2 to 4 inches
in length. The jemale is shown in the follow-
ing picture
The jaws are horny and are armed with
teeth, which are for the purpose of bit-
ing off food rather than for chewing it.
When above water, the throat keeps up
a rhythmic motion which is the process
of breathing; but when below water this
motion ceases. The food of frogs is largely
composed of insects which frequent damp
places or live in the water.
The sound-sacs of the leopard frogs,
instead of being beneath the throat, as
is the case with toads and peepers, are
at the side of the throat; and when in-
flated may extend from just back of the
eyes, out above the front legs and part
way down the sides. The song is char-
acteristic, and pleasant to listen to, if not
too close by. Perhaps exception should be
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Female green frog, Rana clamitans. The
color of these frogs in general is greenish
brown with a bright green mark from the
eardrum forward along the jaw. Note that
the eardrum of the male is larger than that of
the female
made to the lay of the bullfrog, which like
the song of some noted opera singers, is
more wonderful than musical; the boom
of the bullfrog makes the earth fairly
quake. If we seize the frog by the hind
leg, it will usually croak and thus demon-
strate for us the position of its sound-sacs.
In addition to the snakes, the frogs have
inveterate enemies in the herons, which
frequent shallow water and eat them in
great numbers. The frogs hibernate in
mud and about ponds, burrowing deep
enough to escape freezing. In the spring,
they come up and sing their spring songs
and the mother leopard frogs lay their
eggs in masses of jelly on the bottom of
the pond, usually where the water is
A. A, and A. H. Wright
Wood frog} Rana sylvatica. In spring these
frogs are found about ponds and temporary
pools in wooded areas; at other times they
are in the woods. They even hibernate under
stumps, stones, or logs in or near woods.
Their color varies from tan to brown, a
prominent black mask covering the sides of
the head. They range from, Quebec and Nova
Scotia south to the Carolinas and westward
to the plains
deeper than in the situations where the
toads' eggs are laid. The eggs of the two
can always be distinguished, since the
toads' are laid in strings of jelly, while the
leopard frogs' are laid in masses. The bull-
frog and green frog lay large films of eggs
on the surface of the water.
It is amusing to watch with a lens the
frog tadpoles seeking for their microscopic
food along the glass of the aquarium.
There are horny upper and lower jaws, the
latter being below and back of the former.
The upper jaw moves back and forth
slightly and rhythmically, but the drop-
ping of the lower jaw opens the mouth.
There are three rows of tiny black teeth
AMPHIBIANS
below the mouth and one row above; at
the sides and below these teeth are little,
finger-like fringes. Fringes, rows of teeth,
and jaws all work together, up and down,
out and in, in the process of breathing.
The nostrils, although minute, are present
in the tadpole in its early stages. The pupil
of the eye is almost circular and the iris
is usually yellow or copper-bronze, with
black mottling. The eyes do not wink or
withdraw. The breathing-pore, which is
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Southern leopard frog, Rana sphenoceph-
ala. The home of this frog is in swamps, over-
flowed areas, or ponds in the southeastern
states and northward along the coast to New
Jersey. The pointed snout, glistening white
underside, and ridges extending backward
from each eye are characteristic
on the left side, is a hole in a slight pro-
tuberance.
At first, the tadpoles of the frogs and
toads are very much alike; but later most
of the frog tadpoles are lighter in color,
usually being olive-green, mottled with
specks of black and white. The frog tad-
poles usually remain much longer than
the toads in the tadpole stage, and when
finally they change to adults, they are far
larger in size than the toads are when
they attain their jumping legs.
SUGGESTED READING— Along the Brook,
by Raymond T. Fuller; The Frog Book,
by Mary C. Dickerson; Handbook of
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Eggs of leopard frog, Rana pipiens pipiens.
and wood frog, Rana sylvatica. The eggs of
the leopard frog are laid in a flattened sphere
in waters of swampy marshes, overflows, and
ponds. In summer,, the adults are found in
swampy areas, grassy woodlands, or even hay
or grain fields. They range from the Pacific
coast states into Mexico. The eggs of the wood
frog are laid in round masses
Frogs and Toads, by Anna A. and Albert
H. Wright; Holiday Pond, by Edith M.
Patch; Nature and Science Readers, by
Edith M. Patch and Harrison E. Howe,
Book 2, Outdoor Visits; The Pond Book,
by Walter P. Porter and Einar A. Hansen;
The Story of Frogs, by Mary B. Herring
(Unit Study Book, No. 351); also, read-
ings on page 170.
LESSON 47
THE FROG
LEADING THOUGHT — The frog lives
near or in ponds or streams. It is a power-
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Wright's bullfrog, Rana heckscheri. This is
a transforming tadpole. Note that the left
front leg has not yet pushed through the skin.
The range of this frog is from South Carolina
to Mississippi
TAILLESS AMPHIBIANS
1 and 2. AMERICAN BELL TOAD, Ascaphus
truei, male and fern-ale. The size of this toad
is \Y% to 2 inches. Note that the male is tailed.
Range: Northern California, Oregon, and
Washington, and eastward into Montana.
Habitat: Usually under rocks in small, cold
mountain streams; in rainy seasons they may
be found a short distance away from the water.
They seem to be rather solitary in habit.
3 and 4. OAK TOAD, Bufo quercicus. The
adults of this pigmy toad range in size from
*A to \Y± inches. Its color varies from light
brown to almost black. Note the expanded
vocal sac of the male (No. 4); when deflated
it is an apron fold under the throat. The call
is a high whistle, which is more birdlike than
froglike. A chorus of calls can be heard for more
than an eighth of a mile.
Range: North Carolina to Florida, west to
Louisiana. Habitat: Pine barrens.
5. NARROW MOUTH TOAD, Microhyla caro-
linensis. The size of these dark, smooth-skinned
toads ranges from %toiy5 inches. The voice of
the males resembles the bleating of sheep. The
eggs are laid in a surface film, each egg being
clearly outlined.
Range: From Virginia to Florida, westward
to Texas. Habitat: In moist places under
virtually any kind of cover, even haycocks and
decaying logs.
6. CANYON or SPOTTED TOAD, Bufo puncta-
tus. This toad is iy5 to 3 inches in size; its
color varies from greenish tan to red. The call
is high pitched and birdlike. The eggs are laid
singly in pools of intermittent streams. This
toad breeds from April to July.
Range: South central Texas to Lower Cali-
fornia and California. Habitat: Desert can-
yons.
7. GREAT PLAINS TOAD, Bufo cognatus.
These large-bodied, brown, gray, or greenish
toads measure from 1% to 4 inches. Their call
is harsh and low pitched. The vocal sac is shaped
like a sausage stood on end.
Range: Mostly west of the 10(M meridian,
from North Dakota southwestward to Mexico
and eastern California. Habitat: Grazing lands
in flood plains.
8. SPADEFOOT TOAD, Bufo compactilis. The
size of this desert toad is 2 to 3% inches; its
color is pinkish drab. It breeds in pools or
even in cattle tanks. Note the expanded sausage-
like vocal sac of this male.
Range: Utah and Nevada eastward to Ok-
lahoma and southward into Mexico. Habitat:
Deserts.
9. HAMMOND'S SPADEFOOT, Scaphiopus
hammondii. This toad ranges from 1% to 2%
inches in size. It breeds in temporary pools;
the tadpoles eat many mosquitoes, and the toads
eat many tadpoles. It is seldom seen above ground
except during rains of long duration. The un-
usual call is plaintive and catlike.
Range: From North Dakota southward to
Mexico, and westward to the Pacific coast.
Habitat: Burrows, which it digs in moist
ground with its strong, spadelike feet, and into
which it pushes itself by rocking its body.
10. CANADIAN or WINNIPEG TOAD, Bufo
hemiophrys. In size this toad ranges from 2%
to 3K inches. It has a very prominent heavy,
horny boss between its eyes and on its snout.
It may breed in the shallows at the edges of any
body of fresh water.
Range: North Dakota to Manitoba. Habi-
tat: Lakes and stream valleys.
11 and 12. YOSEMITE TOAD, Bufo canorus,
male and female. This is the only toad in the
United States that shows marked difference
between male and female. The male (No. 11)
is olive-colored, while the female (No. 12) is
light gray with many black areas. Its size is
from 2 to 3 inches.
Range: Yosemite National Park and cen-
tral Sierra Nevada at altitudes of 1000 to
1100 feet. Habitat: Wet meadows and mar*
gins of streams and lakes.
Photographs by A. A. and A. H. Wright
•i86
ANIMALS
ful jumper and has a slippery body. Its
eggs are laid in masses of jelly at the bot-
tom of ponds.
METHOD — The frog may be studied in
its native situation by the pupils or it
may be brought to the school and placed
in an aquarium; however, to make a frog
aquarium there needs to be a stick or
stone projecting above the water, for the
frog likes to spend part of the time en-
tirely out of water or only partially sub-
merged.
OBSERVATIONS— i. Where is the frog
found? Does it live all its life in the water?
When found on land how and where does
it seek to escape?
2. Compare the form of the frog with
that of the toad. Describe the frog's skin,
its color and texture. Compare the skins
of the two.
3. Describe the colors and markings of
the frog on the upper and on the under
side. How do these protect it from obser-
vation from above? From below? How do
we usually discover that we are in the vi-
cinity of a frog?
4. Describe the frog's ears, eyes, nos-
trils, and mouth.
5. Compare its " hands and feet " with
those of the toad. Why the difference in
the hind legs and feet?
6. How does the frog feel to your hand?
Is it easy to hold him? How does this
slipperiness of the frog benefit it?
7. On what does the frog feed? What
feeds on it? How does it escape its ene-
mies?
8. What sounds does the frog make?
Where are the sound-sacs of the leopard
frog located? How do they look when they
are inflated?
9. Is the frog a good swimmer? Is it
a better jumper than the toad? Why?
10. Where are the leopard frog's eggs
laid? How do they look?
11. Can you tell the frog tadpoles from
, those of the toad? Which remains longer
in the tadpole stage? Study the frog tad-
poles, following the questions given in Les-
son 44.
12. What happens to the frog in
winter?
FESTINA LENTE
Once on a time there was a pool
Fringed all about with Rag-leaves cool
And spotted with cow-lilies garish,
Of frogs and pouts the ancient parish.
Aiders the creaking redwings sink on,
Tussocks that house blithe Bob o' Lin-
coln,
Hedged round the unassailed seclusion,
Where musfcrats piled their cells Carthu-
sian;
And many a moss-embroidered log,
The watering-place of summer frog,
Slept and decayed with patient skill,
As watering-places sometimes will.
Now in this Abbey of Theleine,
Which realized the fairest dream
That ever dozing bull-frog had,
Sunned, on a half-sunk lily pad,
There rose a party with a mission
To mend the polliwog's condition,
Who notified the selectmen
To call a meeting there and then.
"Some kind of steps," they said, "are
needed;
They don't corne on so fast as we did:
Let's dock their tails; if that don't make
'em
Frogs by brevet, the Old One take 'em/
That boy, that came the other day
To dig some flag-root down this way,
His jack-knife left, and 'tis a sign
That Heaven approves of our design:
'T were wicked not to urge the step on,
When Providence has sent the weapon."
Old croalcers, deacons of the mire,
That led the deep batrachian choir,
" Ukl Uk! Caronkl " with bass that might
Have left Lablache's out of sight,
Shook nobby heads, and said " No go!
You'd better let 'em try to grow:
Old Doctor Time is slow, but still
He does know bow to make a pill."
But vain was all their hoarsest bass,
Their old experience out of place,
And spite of croaking and entreating
The vote was carried in marsh-meeting.
" Lord knows," protest the polliwogs,
" We're anxious to be grown-up frogs;
But don't push in to do the work
Of Nature till she prove a shirk;
'Tis not by jumps that she advances,
AMPHIBIANS
187
But wins her way by circumstances;
Pray, wait awhile, until you know
We're so contrived as not to grow;
Let Nature talce her own direction,
And she'll absorb our imperfection;
You mightn't like 'em to appear with,
But we must have the things to steer
with."
" No," piped the party of reform,
" All great results are ta'en by storm;
Fate holds her best gifts till we show
We've strength to make her let them go;
The Providence that works in history,
And seems to some folks such a mystery.
Does not creep slowly on, incog.,
But moves by jumps, a mighty frog;
No more reject the Age's chrism,
Your queues are an anachronism;
No more the future's promise mock,
But lay your tails upon the block,
Thankful that we the means have voted
To have you thus to frogs promoted."
The thing was done, the tails were
cropped,
And home each philotadpole hopped,
In faith rewarded to exult,
And wait the beautiful result.
Too soon it came; our pool, so long
The theme of patriot bull-frog's song,
Next day was reeking, fit to smother,
With heads and tails that missed each
other, —
Here snoutless tails, there tailless snouts;
The only gainers were the pouts.
MORAL
From lower to the higher next,
Not to the top is Nature's text;
And embryo Good, to reach full stature,
Absorbs the Evil in its nature.
•— LOWELL
THE TAILED AMPHIBIANS
The best-known representatives of this
group are the salamanders of various types.
Barring accidents, a salamander retains its
tail throughout life. Salamanders resem-
ble lizards in shape, and many people
have incorrectly called them lizards. It
is not difficult to distinguish them, if
one bears in mind that the covering
of the salamander is rather soft and
somewhat moist, while that of the
lizard is rather dry and in the form of
scales.
The red-backed salamander lacks the
amphibian habits usual to the group; it
lives on land during its entire life. The
eggs are laid in a small cluster, in a decay-
ing log or stump; the adult is often to be
found quite near the egg cluster. On the
other extreme, the mud puppies and hell-
benders spend their entire lives in the
water. They are rarely seen, live chiefly
under rocks in stream beds, and feed
chiefly at night.
The many local forms of amphibians
offer excellent opportunities for interest-
ing outdoor studies. Of the tailed am-
phibians, the newt is considered in detail,
and pictures of other representative sala-
manders are shown.
SUGGESTED READING — Backyard Explo-
ration, by Paul G. Howes; Nature— by
Seaside and Wayside, by Mary G. Phil-
lips and Julia M. Wright, Book 4, Our
Earth and Its Life; The Pond Book, by
Walter P. Porter and Einar A. Hansen:
also, readings on page 170.
THE NEWT OR EFT
One of the most commonly seen sala- or woodland paths, and since they are
manders is the newt or eft. After a rain rarely seen except after rain, the wise
in spring or summer, we see these little people of old declared they rained down,
orange-red creatures sprawling along roads which was an easy way of explaining their
ANIMALS
A spotted salamander in natural surroundings
presence. But the newts do not rain down,
they rain up instead, since if they have
journeys to make they must needs go forth
when the ground is damp; otherwise they
would dry up and die. Thus, the newts
make a practice of not going out except
when the ground is rather moist. A closer
view of the eft shows plenty of peculiari-
ties in its appearance to interest us. Its
colors are decidedly gay, the body color
being orange, ornamented with vermilion
dots along each side of the back, each red
dot being usually margined with tiny black
specks; but the eft is careless about these
decorations and may have more spots on
one side than on the other. Besides these
vermilion dots, it is also adorned with
black specks here and there, and espe-
cially along its sides looks as if it had been
peppered. The newt's greatest beauty lies
in its eyes; these are black, with elongated
pupils, almost parallel with the length of
the head, and bordered above and below
with bands of golden, shining iris which
give the eyes a fascinating brilliancy. The
nostrils are mere pinholes in the end of
the snout.
The legs and feet look queerly inade-
quate for such a long body, since they
are short and far apart. There are four
toes on the front feet and five on the
hind feet, the latter being decidedly
pudgy. The legs are thinner where they
join the body and wider toward the feet.
The eft can move very rapidly with its
scant equipment of legs. It has a mis-
leading way of remaining motionless for
a long time and then darting forward like
a flash, its long body falling into graceful
curves as it moves. But it can go very
slowly when exploring; it then places its
little hands cautiously and lifts its head as
high as its short arms will allow, in order
to take observations. Although it can see
quite well, yet on an unusual surface, like
glass, it seems to feel the way by touch-
ing its lower lip to the surface as if to test
it. The tail is flattened at the sides and
is used to twine around objects in time of
need; and I ara sure it is also used to
AMPHIBIANS
189
push the eft while crawling, for it curves
this way and that vigorously, as the feet
progress, and obviously pushes against the
ground. Then, too, the tail is an aid when,
by some chance, the eft is turned over on
its back, for with its help it can right itself
speedily. The eft's method of walking is
interesting; it moves forward one front
foot and then the hind foot on the other
side; after a stop for rest, it begins just
where it left off when it again starts on.
Its beautiful eyes seem to serve the newt
well indeed, for I find that, when it sees
my face approaching the moss jar, it
climbs promptly over to the other side.
There are no eyelids for the golden eyes,
but the eft can pull them back into its
head and close the slit after them, thus
making them very safe.
The eft with whose acquaintance I was
most favored was not yet mature and was
afraid of earthworms; but he was very fond
of plant lice and it was fun to see the
little creature stalking them. A big rose
plant louse would be squirming with satis-
faction as it sucked the juice of the leaf,
when the eft would catch sight of it and
become greatly excited, evidently holding
his breath, since the pulsating throat
would become rigid. There was a particu-
larly alert attitude of the whole front part
of the body and especially of the eyes and
the head; then the neck would stretch
out long and thin, and the orange snout
approach stealthily to within half an inch
of the smug aphid. Then there would be a
flash as of lightning, something too swift
to see coming out of the eft's mouth and
swooping up the unsuspecting louse. Then
Red-spotted newt stalking plant lice
S. C. Bishop
Giant or California newt, Triturus torosus.
About ponds and streams from- lower Cali-
jornia to Alaska this newt may be seen; its
body is stout and is about six inches long
there would be a gulp or two and all
would be over. If the aphid happened to
be a big one, the eft made visible effort
to swallow it. Sometimes his ef tship would
become greatly excited when he first saw
the plant louse, and he would sneeze and
snort in a very comical way, like a dog
eager for game.
This is the history of this species as
summarized from Mrs. S. H. Gage's
charming Story of Little Red Spot. The
egg is laid in some fresh-water pond or the
still borders of some stream where there
is a growth of water weed. The egg, which
is about the size of a sweet pea seed, is fas-
tened to a water plant. It is covered with a
tough but translucent envelope, and has
at the center a little yellowish globule. In
a little less than a month the eft hatches,
but it looks very different from the form
with which we are most familiar. It has
gray stripes upon its sides and three tiny
bunches of red gills on each side, just
back of its broad head. The keeled tail
is long and very thin. The newt is an ex-
pert swimmer and breathes water as does
a fish. After a time it becomes greenish
above and buff below, and by the middle
of August it develops legs and has changed
its form so that it is able to live upon
land; it no longer has gills; soon the coat
changes to the bright orange hue which
makes the little creature so conspicuous.
The newt usually keeps hidden among
moss, or under leaves, or in decaying
wood, or in other damp and shady places;
but after a rain, when the whole world is
damp, it feels confidence enough to go out
in the open and hunt for food. For about
two and a half years it lives upon land;
then it returns to the water. When this
TAILED AMPHIBIANS-
1 and 2. SPOTTED SALAMANDER, Ambystoma
maculatum. The adults are 6 inches long or
more; the body is glistening black with prom-
inent yellow spots. These, like other salamanders,
are entirely harmless; they neither bite nor
scratch. Their egg-masses are deposited during
early spring, while the water is still very cold, in
swampy areas or stagnant pools, and are often
attached to sticks or to submerged parts of plants.
While the eggs are developing, a greenish color,
caused by the presence of numerous algae,
appears in the gelatin of the egg-mass. This
seems to be peculiar to the egg-mass of this sala-
mander, and biologists are trying to learn the
reason for it.
Range: Locally in central North America
from Wisconsin and Nova Scotia southward.
Habitat: Damp dark places during most of
the year. In spring they migrate to ponds to
breed.
3. RED SALAMANDER, Pseudotriton ruber.
Adults are about 6 inches long; young adults
are coral red with irregular black spots; older
adults are somewhat purplish brown; the eggs,
laid in autumn, are attached to the underside
of a stone in a stream.
Range: Locally from New York to Georgia,
westward to the Mississippi River. Habitat:
Under flat stones in shallow water.
4. MARBLED SALAMANDER, Ambystoma
opacum. Adults are about 5 inches long, bluish
beneath and slaty gray on the back, with about
14 grayish-white bars. The creature is not likely
to be mistaken for any other large salamander
found within its range, because the others are
marked with yellow.
Range: Eastern and central North America.
Habitat: Under flat stones or in burrows in
the soil.
5. MUD PUPPY, Necturus rnaculosus. This Range: The central portion of the Missis-
animal, which looks like a huge salamander, sippi drainage basin. Habitat: Caves.
Photographs, except Figure 2, by S. C. Bishop; Figure 2 by Charles E. Mohr
has no scales, and its body is shiny. It does
not come out on land,
Range: Eastern and central United States.
Habitat: Rivers and lakes.
6. TIGER SALAMANDER, Ambystoma ti-
grinum. This is a large, dark brown, yellow-*
splotched salamander. The young, which are
called Axolotl, may even breed while still re-
taining their external gills and living in the
water.
Range: The United States east of the Cas-
cades.
7. SLIMY SALAMANDER, Plethodon glutino-
sus. Adults are about 5 to 6 inches long. The
body, which is very sticky, has a ground color of
black; the speckles vary from white to gray or
even silver. The belly has a dull lead color which
may or may not be flecked with white.
Range: New York to Wisconsin, south to
Florida and Texas.
8. SLENDER SALAMANDER, Batrachoseps
attenuatus. The body of this salamander is
slender, the legs are small and weak, and the
tail is long. The color in general is brown, but
slightly lighter on the back than on the belly
and sides.
Range: The Pacific slope from southwestern
Oregon to California.
9. CAVE SALAMANDER, Typhlotriton spe-
Iseus. This inconspicuous salamander has a
uniformly pale — almost while — body. The
eyes are rudimentary and are somewhat con-
cealed by the skin.
Range: The Ozark plateau region of Arkan-
sas, Kansas, and Missouri. Habitat: Caves.
10. CAVE SALAMANDER, Eurycea lucifuga.
The back of this salamander is vermilion or
orange, with irregular dark brown or black
192
ANIMALS
impulse comes upon it, it may be far
from any stream; but it seems to know
instinctively where to go. After it enters
the water, it is again transformed in color,
becoming olive-green above and buff be-
low, although it still retains the red spots
i? it
Anna Stryke
Early stage of vermilion-spotted newt. Eggs
of newt attached to water plant
along the back; and it also retains its pep-
per-like dots. Its tail develops a keel which
extends along its back and is somewhat
ruffled.
The male has the hind legs very large
and flat; the lighter-colored female has
more delicate and smaller legs. It is here
in the water that the efts find their mates
and finish careers which must surely have
been hazardous. During its long and var-
ied life, the eft often sheds its skin like
the snake; it has a strange habit of swal-
lowing its cast-off coat.
SUGGESTED READING— Along the Brook,
by Raymond T. Fuller; also, readings on
pages 170 and 185.
LESSON 48
THE NEWT OR EFT
LEADING THOUGHT— -The newts are
born in the water and at first have gills.
Later they live on land and have lungs
for breathing air; then they go back to the
water and again develop the power of
breathing the oxygen contained in water;
they also develop a keeled tail.
METHOD — The little, orange eft or red-
spotted salamander may be kept in an
aquarium which has in it an object, such
as a stone or a clump of moss, which pro-
jects above the water. For food it should
be given small earthworms or leaves cov-
ered with plant lice. In this way it may be
studied at leisure.
OBSERVATIONS — i . Look at the eft
closely. Is it all the same color? How many
spots upon its back and what colors are
they? Are there the same number of spots
on both sides? Are there any spots or idots
besides these larger ones? How does the
eft resemble a toad?
2. Is the head the widest part of the
body? Describe the eyes, the shape and
color of the pupil and of the iris. How
does the eft wink? Do you think it can
see well?
3. Can you see the nostrils? How does
the throat move and why?
4. Are both pairs of legs the same size?
How many toes on the front feet? How
many toes on the hind feet? Does the eft
toe in with its front feet like a toad?
5. Does it move more than one foot
at a time when walking? Does it use the
feet on the same side in two consecutive
steps? After it puts forward the right
front foot what foot follows next? Can it
move backward?
6. Is the tail as long as the head and
body together? Is the tail round or flat at
the sides? How is it used to help the eft
when traveling? Does the tail drag or is it
lifted, or does it push by squirming?
7. How does the eft act when startled?
Does it examine its surroundings? Do you
think it can see and is afraid of you?
8. Why do we find more of these crea-
tures during wet weather? Why do people
think they rain down?
9. What does the eft eat? How does
it catch its prey? Does it shed its skin?
How many kinds of efts have you seen?
10. From what kind of egg does the
eft hatch? When is this egg laid? How
does it look? On what is it fastened?
REPTILES
Yet when a child and barefoot, I more than once, at morn,
Have passed, I thought, a whiplash imbraided in the sun?
When, stooping to secure it, it wrinkled, and was gone.
— EMILY DICKINSON
The animals in the reptile group have a
covering of bony plates or scales. These
animals vary greatly in size and shape and
include such forms as snakes, lizards, tur-
tles, crocodiles, and alligators. They make
their homes in a great variety of places;
the alligators, the crocodiles, and some of
the snakes and turtles live in or near water,
while many of the snakes and lizards are
quite at home in desert regions.
If the teacher could bring herself to
take as much interest as did Mother Eve
in that " subtile animal/7 as the Bible
calls the serpent, she might, through such
interest, enter the paradise of the boyish
heart instead of losing a paradise of her
own. How many teachers, who have an
aversion for snakes, are obliged to teach
small boys whose pet diversion is cap-
turing these living ribbons and bringing
them into the schoolroom stowed away
not too securely in pockets! In one of the
suburban Brooklyn schools, boys of this
stripe sought to frighten their teacher with
their weird prisoners. But she was equal
to the occasion, and surprised them by de-
claring that there were many interesting
things to be studied about snakes, and
forthwith sent to the library for books
which discussed these reptiles; and this
was the beginning of a nature-study club
of rare efficiency and enterprise.
There are abroad in the land many
erroneous beliefs concerning snakes. Most
people believe that they are all venomous,
which is far from true. The rattlesnake
still holds its own in rocky, mountainous
places, and the moccasin haunts the bay-
ous of the southern coast; however, in
most localities, snakes are not only harm-
less but are beneficial to the farmer. The
superstition that if a snake is killed, its
tail will live until sundown is general
and has but slender foundation in the fact
that with snakes, which are lower in their
nerve-organization than mammals, the
process of death is a slow one. Some peo-
ple firmly believe that snakes spring or
jump from the ground to seize their prey,
which is quite false since no snake jumps
clear of the ground as it strikes, nor does
it spring from a perfect coil. Nor are
F. Harper
Alligator, Alligator mississippiensis. Alli-
gators may reach a length of twelve feet; they
live in or about rivers and swamps of tropical
and sub-tropical regions. Their food consists
chiefly of fish, mammals, and waterfowl. They
are unique among reptiles in being able to
produce a loud bellowing noise. In the past,
alligators have been ruthlessly slaughtered
and even now need more protection
snakes slimy; on the contrary, they are
covered with perfectly dry scales. But the
most general superstition of all is that a
snake's thrusting out its tongue is an act
of animosity; the fact is, the tongue is a
sense organ and is used as an insect uses its
feelers or antennae, and the act is also
supposed to aid the creature in hearing;
thus when a snake thrusts out its tongue,
it is simply trying to find out about its
surroundings and what is going on.
Snakes are the only creatures able to
swallow objects larger than themselves.
ANIMALS
F. Harper .and A. A. Wright
Alligator eggs. More than 30 eggs may be
laid by one jemale alligator; they are placed
above water level in a nest of swamp vegeta-
tion. When hatching, the young alligators are
about 8 inches long. Turtle eggs, often- laid in
the same pile of vegetation, are shown in the
foreground
This is rendered possible by the elasticity
of the body walls, and by the fact that
snakes have an extra bone hinging the
upper to the lower jaw, allowing them to
spread widely; the lower jaw also separates
at the middle of its front edge and spreads
apart sidewise. In order to force a creature
into a " bag " so manifestly too small, a
special mechanism is needed; the teeth
supply this by pointing backward, and
thus assisting in the swallowing. The
snake moves by literally walking on the
ends of its ribs, which are connected with
the crosswise plates on its lower side; each
of these crosswise plates has the hind edge
projecting down so that it can hold to an
object. Thus, the graceful, noiseless prog-
ress of the snake is brought about by
many of these crosswise plates worked
by the movement of the ribs.
Some species of snakes simply chase
their prey, striking at it and catching it
in the open mouth, while others, like the
pilot black snake, wind themselves about
their victims and crush them to death.
Snakes can live a long time without food;
many instances on record show that they
have been able to exist a year or more
without anything to eat. In our northern
climate they hibernate in winter, going
to sleep as soon as the weather becomes
cold and not waking up until spring. As
snakes grow, they shed their skins; this
occurs only two or three times a year.
The crested flycatcher adorns its nest with
these phantom snakes.
SUGGESTED READING — Along Nature's
Trails, by Lillian C. Athey; Animals in the
Sun, by William W. Robinson; Back-
yard Exploration, by Paul G. Howes;
Desert Neighbors, by Edith M. Patch and
Carroll L. Fenton; Nature — by Seaside
and Wayside, by Mary G. Phillips and
Julia M. Wright, Book 4, Our Earth and
Its Life; Our Great Outdoors, Reptiles,
Amphibians and Fishes, by C. W. G.
Eifrig; Out-of-Doors — A Guide to Na-
ture, by Paul B. Mann and George T.
Hastings; The Pond Book, and Fields
and Fencerows, both by Walter P. Porter
and Einar A. Hansen; Reptiles and Am-
phibians, Tli err Habits and Adaptations,
by Thomas Barbour; Reptiles of North
America, Snakes of the World, Reptiles
of the World, The Book of Living Rep-
tiles, all by Raymond L. Ditmars; Snakes
Alive and How They Live, by Clifford H.
Pope; The Stir of Nature, by William
H. Carr; see also Bibliography.
THE GARTER OR GARDEN SNAKE
A chipmunk, or a sudden-whirring quail,
Is startled by my step as on I fare.
A gartersnafee across the dusty trail,
Glances and — is not there.
— RILEY
Garter snakes can be easily tamed, and
are ready to meet friendly advances half
way. A handsome yellow-striped, black
garter lived for four years beneath our
porch and was very friendly and unafraid
of the family. The children of the campus
REPTILES
Garter snakes
made it frequent visits., and never seemed
to be weary of watching it; but the birds
objected to it very much, although it
never attempted to reach their nests in
the vine above. The garter snakes are the
most common of all, in our northeastern
states. They vary much in color; the
ground color may be olive, brown, or
black, and down the center of the back
is usually a yellow, green, or whitish stripe,
usually bordered by a darker band of
ground-color. On each side is a similar
stripe, but not so brightly colored; some-
times the middle stripe and sometimes
the side stripes are broken into spots or
absent; the lower side is greenish white or
yellow. When fully grown this snake is
two to two and one-half feet in length.
The garters are likely to congregate in
numbers in places favorable for hiberna-
tion, like rocky ledges or stony sidehills.
Here each snake finds a safe crevice, or
makes a burrow which sometimes extends
a yard or more underground. During the
warm days of Indian summer, these winter
hermits crawl out in the middle of the
day and sun themselves, retiring again to
their hermitages when the air grows chilly
toward night; and when the cold weather
arrives, they go to sleep and do not awaken
until the first warm days of spring; then,
if the sun shines hot, they crawl out and
bask in its welcome rays.
After the warm weather comes, the
snakes scatter to other localities more fa-
vorable for finding food, and thus these
hibernating places are deserted during the
summer. The banks of streams and the
edges of woods are places which furnish
snakes their food, which consists of earth-
worms, insects, toads, salamanders, frogs,
etc. The young are born from late July
to mid September and are about six inches
long at birth; one mother may have in her
brood from eleven to fifty snakelings; she
often stays with them only a few hours.
There are many stories about the way
the young ones run down the mother's
throat in case of attack; but as yet no
scientist has seen this act or placed it
ANIMALS
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Common garter snake
Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis
on record. The little snakes shift for their
own food, catching small toads, earth-
worms, and insects. If it finds food in
plenty, the garter snake will mature in
one year. Hawks, crows, skunks, weasels,
and other predacious animals seem to find
the garter snake attractive food.
SUGGESTED READING -— Holiday Hill, by
Edith M. Patch; also, readings on page
194.
LESSON 49
THE GARTER OR GARDEN SNAKE
LEADING THOUGHT — The garter snake
is a common and harmless little creature
and has many interesting habits which are
worth studying.
METHOD — A garter snake may be cap-
tured and placed in a box with a glass
cover and thus studied in detail in the
schoolroom, but the lesson should begin
with observations made by the children
on the snakes in their native haunts.
OBSERVATIONS — - 1 . What are the col-
ors and markings of your garter snake?
Do the stripes extend along the head as
well as the body? How long is it?
2. Describe its eyes, its ears, its nostrils,
and its mouth.
3. If you disturb it how does it act?
Why does it thrust its tongue out? What
shape is its tongue?
4. In what position is the snake when
it rests? Can you see how it moves? Look
upon the lower side. Can you see the little
plates extending crosswise? Do you think
it moves by moving these plates? Let it
crawl across your hand, and see if you can
tell how it moves.
5. What does the garter snake eat? Did
you ever see one swallow a toad? A frog?
Did it take it head first or tail first?
6. Where does the garter spend the
winter? How early does it appear in the
spring?
7. At what time of year do you see
the young snakes? Do the young ones
run down the throat of the mother for
safety when attacked? Does the mother
snake defend her young?
8. What enemies has the garter snake?
No life in earth or air or s£y;
The sunbeams, broken silently,
On the bared rocks around me lie, —
Cold roclcs with half warmed lichens
scarred,
And scales of moss; and scarce a yard
Away, one long strip, yellow-barred.
Lost in a cleft! Tis but a stride
To reach it, thrust its roots aside,
And lift it on thy stick astride!
Yet stay! That moment is thy grace!
For round thee, thrilling air and space,
A chattering terror fills the place!
A sound as of dry bones that stir,
In the dead valley! By yon fir
The locust stops its noon-day whir!
The wild bird hears; smote with the sound,
As if by bullet brought to ground
On broken wing, dips, wheeling round!
The hare, transfixed, with trembling lip,
Halts breathless, on pulsating hip,
And palsied tread, and heels that slip.
Enough, old friend! — 'tis thou. Forget
My heedless foot, nor longer fret
The peace with thy grim castanet!
From " CROTALTJS
(THE RATTLESNAKE)/'
BRET HARTE
REPTILES
197
THE MILK SNAKE OR SPOTTED ADDER
The grass divides as with a comb,, a spotted shaft is seen,
And then it closes at your feet, and opens farther on.
— EMILY DICKINSON
This is the snake which Is said to milk
cows, a most absurd belief; it would not
milk a cow if it could, and it could not if
it would. It has never yet been induced
to drink milk when in captivity; and if it
were very thirsty, it could not drink more
than two teaspoonfuls of milk at most;
thus in any case, its depredations upon the
milk supply need not be feared. Its ob-
ject in frequenting milk houses and sta-
bles is far other than the milking of cows,
for it is an inveterate hunter of rats and
mice and is thus of great benefit to the
farmer. It is a constrictor, and squeezes
its prey to death in its coils.
The ground color of the milk snake is
pale gray, but it is covered with so many
brown or dark gray saddle-shaped blotches,
that they seem rather to form the ground
color; the lower side is white, marked
with square black spots and blotches. The
snake attains a length of two and one-half
to three feet when fully grown. Although
it is commonly called the spotted adder,
it does not belong to the adders at all,
but to the family of the king snakes.
During July and August, the mother
snake lays from seven to twenty eggs; they
are deposited in loose soil, in moist rub-
bish, in compost heaps, etc. The egg is a
symmetrical oval in shape and is about
one and one-eighth inches long by a half
inch in diameter. The shell is soft and
white, like kid leather, and the egg resem-
bles a puffball. The young hatch nearly
two months after the eggs are laid; mean-
while the eggs have increased in size so
that the snakelings are nearly eight inches
long when they hatch. The saddle-shaped
blotches on the young have much red
in them. The milk snake is not venomous;
it will sometimes, in defense, try to chew
the hand of the captor, but the wounds
it can inflict are very slight and heal
quickly.
SUGGESTED READING — Readings on
page 194.
LESSON 50
THE MILK SNAKE OR SPOTTED ADDER
LEADING THOUGHT — The milk snake is
found around stables where it hunts for
rats and mice; it never milks the cows.
METHOD — Although the snake acts
fierce, it is perfectly harmless and may be
captured in the hands and placed in a
glass-covered box for a study in the school-
room.
OBSERVATIONS-—!. Where is the milk
snake found? Why is it called milk snake?
Look at its mouth and see if you think
it could possibly suck a cow. See if you
can get the snake to drink milk.
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Milk make
Lampropeltis triangulum triangulum
198
ANIMALS
2. What does it live upon? How does
it kill its prey? Can the milk snake climb
a tree?
3. Where does the mother snake lay
her eggs? How do the eggs look? How
large are they? How long are the little
snakes when they hatch from the egg?
Are they the same color as the old ones?
4. Describe carefully the colors and
markings of the milk snake and explain
how its colors protect it from observation.
What are its colors on the underside?
5. Have you ever seen a snake shed its
skin? Describe how it was done. How does
the sloughed-off skin look? What bird usu-
ally puts snake skins around its nest?
I have the same objection to killing a
snake that I have to the killing of any
other animal, yet the most humane man I
know never omits to kill one.
Aug. 5, 1853.
The mower on the river meadows,
when lie comes to open his hay these days,
encounters some overgrown water adder,
full of young (?) and bold in defense of
its progeny, and tells a tale when lie comes
home at night which causes a shudder to
run through the village — how it came at
him and he ran, and it pursued and over-
tooJc him, and he transfixed it with a pitch-
fort and laid it on a cock of hay, but it
revived and carne at him again. This is the
story he tells in the shops at evening. The
big snake is a sort of fabulous animal. It is
always as big as a man's arm and of in-
definite length. Nobody knows exactly
how deadly is its bite but nobody is known
to have been bitten and recovered. Irish-
men introduced into these meadows for
the first time, on seeing a snake, a creature
which they have seen only in pictures be-
fore, lay down their scythes and run as if
it were the Evil One himself and cannot
be induced to return to their work. They
sigh for Ireland, where they say there is
no venomous thing that can hurt you.
— THOREAU'S JOURNAL
THE WATER SNAKE
Every boy who goes fishing knows the
snake found commonly about milldams
and wharves or on rocks and bushes near
the water. The teacher will have accom-
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Common water snake
Natrix sipedon sipedon
plished a great work, if these boys are
made to realize that this snake is more
interesting as a creature for study, than
as an object to pelt with stones.
The water snake is a dingy brown in
color, with cross-bands of brown or reddish
brown which spread out into blotches at
the side. Its color is very protective as
it lies on stones or logs in its favorite atti-
tude of sunning itself. It is very local in
its habits, and generally has a favorite
place for basking and returns to it year
after year on sunny clays.
This snake lives mostly upon frogs and
salamanders and fish; however, it preys
usually upon fish of small value, so it is of
little economic importance. It catches its
victims by chasing and seizing them in
its jaws. It has a very keen sense of smell
and probably traces its prey in this man-
ner, something as a hound follows a fox.
It is an expert swimmer, usually lifting
the head a few inches above the water
when swimming, although it is able to
REPTILES
199
dive and remain below the water for a
short time.
The water snake is a bluffer, and, when
cornered, it flattens itself and strikes
fiercely. But its teeth contain no poison
and it can inflict only slight and harmless
wounds. When acting as if it would
" rather fight than eat," if given a slight
chance to escape, it will flee to the water
like a " streak of greased lightning," as
any boy will assure you.
The water snake may attain a length of
about four feet; but the usual size is two
and one-half to three feet. The young do
not hatch from eggs, but are born alive
in August and September; they differ
much in appearance from their parents
as they are pale gray in color, with jet-
black cross-bands. The young often num-
ber twenty-five to forty and are about eight
inches long.
SUGGESTED READING — Along the Brook,
by Raymond T. Fuller; Field Book of
Ponds and Streams, by Ann H. Morgan;
also, readings on page 194.
LESSON 51
THE WATER SNAKE
LEADING THOUGHT — The water snake
haunts the banks of streams because its
food consists of creatures that live in and
about water.
METHOD — If water snakes are found in
the locality, encourage the boys to capture
one without harming it, and bring it to
school for observation. However, as the
water snake is very local in its habits, and
haunts the same place year after year, it
will be better nature-study to get the chil-
dren to observe it in its native surround-
ings.
OBSERVATIONS— i. Where is the water
snake found? How large is the largest one
you ever saw?
2. Why does the water snake live near
water? What is its food? How does it
catch its prey?
3. Describe how the water snake swims.
How far does its head project above
the water when swimming? How long
can it stay completely beneath the
water?
4. Describe the markings and colors
of the water snake. How do these colors
protect it from observation? How do the
young look?
5. Does each water snake have a favor-
ite place to which it will usually go to sun
itself?
6. Where do the water snakes spend the
winter?
May 12, 1858.
Found a large water adder by the edge
of Farmer's large mudhole, which abounds
with tadpoles and frogs, on which it was
probably feeding. It was sunning on the
bank and would face me and dart its head
toward me when I tried to drive it from
the water. It is barred above, but indis-
tinctly when out of the water, so that it
appears almost uniformly dark brown, but
in the water, broad, reddish brown bars are
seen, very distinctly alternating with very
dark-brown ones. The head was very flat
and suddenly broader than the neck be-
hind. Beneath, it was whitish and reddish
flesh-color. It was about two inches in
diameter at the thickest part. The inside
of its mouth and throat was pink. They
are the biggest and most formidable-look-
ing snakes that we have. It was awful to
see it wind along the bottom of the ditch
at last, raising wreaths of mud amid the
tadpoles, to which it must be a very sea-
serpent. I afterward saw another, running
under Sam Barrett's grist-mill, the same
afternoon. He said that he saw a water-
snake, which he distinguished from a
black snake, in an apple tree near by, last
year, with a young robin in its mouth,
having taken it from the nest. There was
a cleft or fork in the tree which enabled
it to ascend.
— THOREAU'S JOURNAL
SNAKES
1. RIBBON SNAKE, Thamnophis sauritus
sauritus. This slender , harmless snake feeds
chiefly upon earthworms and young frogs and
toads.
Range: From Maine, Ontario, and Michi-
gan to Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi.
Habitat: Swamps and moist places.
2. CORAL SNAKE, Micrurus fulvius fulvius.
This beautiful snake is extremely poisonous.
Few persons are bitten by it, however, for it is
nocturnal in habit and during the day it hides
in burrows. Moreover, it does not strike, as
most snakes do, but bites into the flesh and
chews. It injects so much venom in that way
that when it does attack its bite is very dangerous.
This dangerous coral snake can be easily dis-
tinguished from certain other snakes, which
appear to mimic its coloration, by the yellow
bands which separate its black from its red
bands. Look out for the snake with the yellow
bands! Gentle though it may seem, do not play
with it.
3. RUBBER BOA, Charina bottse. Often
spoken of as blind, this boa does have rudi-
mentary eyes, which are, however, almost use-
less.
Range: In humid regions from Utah and
Montana to the Pacific coast.
4. ROUGH GREEN SNAKE, Opheodrys £es-
tivus. Gentle and harmless, this snake is chiefly
insectivorous. It can seldom be induced to bite,
and when it does so, its teeth rarely break the
skin.
Range: From New Jersey south to the Gulf
of Mexico and west to Missouri and New
Mexico. Habitat : Trees and bushy places.
5. TIMBER RATTLER, Crotalus horridus. In
North America, this rattlesnake is the best
known and the most widely distributed. It is
more variable in color than is any other rattler.
In winter, great numbers hibernate in the same
Photographs by A. A,
area, and in early spring, when there is a warm
day, may crawl out into the sunshine. They
usually remain near the den and again seek its
protection if the temperature drops appreciably.
The food of the timber rattler consists chiefly of
warm-blooded animals such as birds, rats, mice,
and rabbits. It is generally 3 to 5 feet long.
Range: Eastern United States to Mississippi
Valley states. Habitat: More various than that
of any other rattler; it is found in both swampy
and mountainous regions.
6. DESERT GOPHER SNAKE or BULL SNAKE,
Pituophis catenifer deserticola. This useful
snake, which feeds chiefly on rodents, is in
some states protected by law. The length of
an adult is usually more than 4 feet.
Range: Southern California to Idaho and
Washington. Other bull snakes are found from
British Columbia to Mexico. Habitat: Desert
areas.
7. RING-NECKED SNAKE or EASTERN RING-
NECKED SNAKE, Diadophis punctatus ed~
wardsii. The food of this snake shows great
variety; it includes other small snakes, lizards,
salamanders, and earthworms.
Range: Species are found generally over
southern Canada, the United States, and
Mexico. Habitat: Under old boards, loose
stones, or pieces of bark.
8. SIDEWINDER or HORNED RATTLESNAKE,
Crotalus cerastes. Its peculiar means of loco-
motion gives this snake its name: the body is
thrown forward in a series of large loops, and
moves at an angle from the direction in which
the head is pointed. This way of getting over
the ground seems better adapted than the gait
of most snakes would be to life in sandy deserts,
to which the sidewinder's habitat is virtually
limited. It is known to feed on such animals as
pocket mice, kangaroo rats, and lizards.
Range: Lower California to southwest Utah.
and A. H. Wright
SNAKES
1. PIKE-HEADED TREE SNAKE or AEIZONA
LONG-HEADED SNAKE, Oxybelis micropthala-
mus. This gentle, slender snake can produce
a poisonous bite, which it uses to paralyze its
prey. It feeds chiefly on lizards and various small
animals.
Range: In the United States, southern
Arizona. Habitat: Trees.
2. PILOT BLACK SNAKE, Elaphe obsoleta
obsoleta. Rats and other small rodents are the
food of this useful snake. Adults are usually
5J^ feet long, but have reached a length of 7 and
8 feet.
Range: From southern New England west-
ward to Michigan, southward to Florida and
Texas.
3. COPPERHEAD, Agkistrodon mokasen
mokasen. The copperhead is common in many
parts of the United States, and is probably
responsible for more bites than is any other kind
of snake. Deaths from its bite have been recorded,
but reports from the Antivenin Institute over a
period of two years show that although in this
time more than three hundred persons were
bitten, there were no fatalities, whether or not
treatment was given. The food of the copperhead
consists mainly of insects, birds, small rodents,
and amphibians. It is rather sluggish in habits,
and, when molested, usually tries to escape; but
if it is taken by surprise or cornered, it defends
itself vigorously.
Range: Massachusetts to Florida and west-
ward to Arkansas and Texas. Habitat: The
copperhead usually inhabits drier ground than
its relative the moccasin (No. 6).
4. BOYLE'S KING SNAKE or BOYLE'S MILK
SNAKE, Lampropeltis getulus boylii. This
snake belongs to a great group of king snakes, all
of which do much good to farmers by destroying
rodents and many other harmful creatures, in-
cluding even poisonous snakes.
Range: Arizona, western Nevada, and Cali-
fornia. Other species are widely distributed.
. Photographs by A.
Habitat: Regions of small streams, especially
where chaparral is present.
5. GRAY PILOT SNAKE, Elaphe obsolete
confinis. The habits of this snake are similar
to those of the pilot black snake (No. 2).
Range: The lower Mississippi Valley, South
Atlantic, and Gulf states.
6. WATER MOCCASIN or COTTONMOUTH,
Agkistrodon piscivorus. This poisonous snake
is heavier and larger than the copperhead, since
it grows from 3 to 5 or even 6 feet in length. The
name of cottonmouth has been given it because
of the white appearance of the open mouth. It
is found in regions of swamps or slow-flowing
streams, and in sunny hours is often to be seen
at rest on any object that overhangs the water;
it stays in such a position that if danger appears
it can dive into the water. It eats both warm-
and cold-blooded animals, even including other
snakes. The young are born alive.
Range: From southern Virginia to Florida
and the Gulf states. Habitat: Swampy areas.
7. CALIFORNIA LYRE SNAKE, Trimorphodon
vandenburghi. The bite of this slender, non-
aggressive snake, which it uses to kill or numb
the small animals that are its prey, is possibly
poisonous to man.
Range: California. Other snakes of this
group are found in the southwestern United
States, Mexico, and Central and South Amer-
ica.
8. SOUTHERN HOGNOSE SNAKE, Heterdon
simus. When threatened, this harmless snake
may "play possum"; or it may expand its body,
flatten its head, and hiss. It seems to feel that
all dead snakes should lie on their backs; for, if
turned on its belly when playing dead, it will
flop over on its back. After a short time, if it is
not disturbed again, it will turn over and crawl
away. Because their threatening actions and
ferocious appearance have led people to con-
sider them dangerous to man, many of these in-
offensive snakes have been killed.
Range : From Florida to Indiana.
A. and A. H. Wright
2O4
ANIMALS
THE TURTLE
A turtle is at heart a misanthrope; its
shell is in itself proof of its owner's dis-
trust of this world. But we need not won-
der at this misanthropy, if we think for a
moment of the creatures that lived on
this earth at the time when turtles first
appeared. Almost any of us would have
been glad of a shell in which to retire if
we had been contemporaries of the smilo
don and other monsters of earlier geologic
times.
When the turtle feels safe and walks
abroad for pleasure, his head projects far
from the front end of his shell, and the
r
A, A. and A. H. Wright
Mud turtle, Kinosternon subrubrum hip-
pocrepis, viewed jrom above. Many species
of mud turtles are found in the eastern, cen-
tral, and southern United States. The one pic-
tured is found from Alabama to Texas and
north to Kansas. When in captivity, mud
turtles will eat lettuce and meat
legs, so wide and soft that they look as if
they had no bones in them, project out at
the side, while the little, pointed tail
brings up an undignified rear; but frighten
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Mud turtle viewed from below
him and at once head, legs, and tail all
disappear, and even if we turn him over,
we see nothing but the tip of the nose,
the claws of the feet and the tail turned
deftly sidewise. When frightened, he
hisses threateningly; the noise seems to
be made while the mouth is shut, and
the breath emitted through the nostrils.
The upper shell of the turtle is called
the carapace and the lower shell, the
plastron. There is much difference in the
different species of turtles in the shape of
the upper shell and the size and shape of
the lower one. In most species the cara-
pace is sub-globular but in some it is
quite flat. The upper shell is grown fast to
the backbone of the animal, and the
lower shell to the breastbone. The mark-
REPTILES
205
ings and colors of the shell offer excellent
subjects for drawing. The painted terra-
pin has a red-mottled border to the shell,
very ornamental; the wood turtle has a
shell made up of plates each of which
is ornamented with concentric ridges; and
the box turtle has a front and rear trap
door, which can be pulled up against the
carapace when the turtle wishes to retire,
thus covering it entirely.
The turtle's head is decidedly snakelike.
Its color differs with different species. The
wood turtle has a triangular, horny cover-
ing on the top of the head, in which the
color and beautiful pattern of the shell
are repeated; the underparts are brick-red
with indistinct yellowish lines under the
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Painted turtle, or terrapin, Chrysemys belli
marginata. The painted turtle pictured is
found from the Mississippi River eastward;
but species can be jound anywhere in the
United States except in deserts and very high
mountains. This turtle often swims about
rocks and logs that protrude above the water
jaw. The eyes are black with a yellowish
iris? which somehow gives them a look
of intelligence. The turtle has no eyelids
like our own, but has a nictitating mem-
brane which comes up from below and
completely covers the eye; if we seize
the turtle by the head and attempt to
touch its eyes, we can see the use of this
eyelid. When the turtle winks, it seems to
turn the eyeball down against the lower
lid.
The turtle's nostrils are mere pinholes
in the snout. The mouth is a more or less
hooked beak, and is armed with cutting
edges instead of teeth. The constant pul-
sation in the throat is caused by the tur-
tle's swallowing air for breathing.
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Chicken turtle, Deirochelys reticularia.
This turtle is at home on the coastal plain
from North Carolina to Mississippi. Its high
shell may reach a length of eight inches; its
neck is long and snakelike
The turtle's legs, although so large and
soft, have bones within them, as the skele-
ton shows. The claws are long and strong;
there are five claws on the front and four
on the hind feet. Some species have a
distinct web between the toes; in others
it is less marked, depending upon whether
the species lives mostly in water or out
of it. The color of the turtle's body varies
with the species; the body is covered with
coarse, rough skin which frequently bears
many scales or plates. Thus, large bright-
colored scales are conspicuous on the fore
legs of the wood turtle, and the tail of
the snapping turtle bears a saw-toothed
armor of dorsal plates.
The enemies of turtles are the larger
fishes and other turtles. Two turtles
should never be kept in the same aquar-
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Diamond back terrapin, Malaclemys cen-
trata. The home of the diamond back is in
salt marshes from Florida to Massachusetts.
In captivity it will eat lettuce, oysters, beef,
chopped clams, or fish. Its flesh is used as
meat and for making soup
206
ANIMALS
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Florida snapper, Chelydra osceola, viewed
from above. Snappers live in slow-running
streams, ponds, or marshes; the female often
goes some distance from her regular home to
bury her round, white eggs — usually about
two dozen in number.
ium? since they eat each other's tails and
legs with great relish. They feed upon
insects, small fish, or almost anything soft-
bodied which they can find in the water;
they are especially fond of earthworms.
The species which frequent the land feed
upon tender vegetation and also eat ber-
ries. In an aquarium, a turtle should be
fed earthworms, chopped fresh beef, let-
tuce leaves, and berries. The wood turtle
is especially fond of cherries.
The aquarium should always have in
it a stone or some other object projecting
above the water, so that the turtle may
climb out, if it chooses. In winter, water
turtles may bury themselves in the ooze
at the bottom of ponds and streams. The
land turtles dig themselves into the earth.
Their eggs have white leathery shells, are
oblong or round, and are buried by the
mother in the sand or soil near a stream
or pond. The long life of turtles is a well-
authenticated fact; dates carved upon
their shells show them to have attained
the age of thirty or forty years.
The following are common kinds:
(a) The Snapping Turtle — This some-
times attains a shell fourteen inches long
and a weight of forty pounds. It is a vicious
r
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Florida snapper viewed from below
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Gopher turtle, Gopherus berlandieri. These
turtles are related to the huge turtles of the
Galapagos Islands. The one pictured is found
in the Rio Grande region; but the range of the
gopher turtles extends widely through the
South and the Southwest
creature and inflicts a severe wound with
its sharp, hooked beak; it should not be
used for a nature-study lesson unless the
specimen is very young. The large alligator
snapper of the South may attain a weight
of one hundred pounds.
(b) The Mud Turtle - The musk tur-
tle and the common mud turtle both in-
habit slow streams and ponds; they are
truly aquatic and only come to shore to
deposit their eggs. They cannot eat unless
they are under water, and they seek their
food in the muddy bottoms. The musk
turtle, when handled, emits a very strong
odor; it has on each side of the head two
broad yellow stripes. The mud turtle has
no odor. Its head is ornamented with
greenish yellow spots.
(c) The Painted Terrapin, or Pond
Turtle — This can be determined by the
REPTILES
red mottled border of its shell. It makes
a good pet, if kept in an aquarium by it-
self, but will destroy other creatures. It
will eat meat or chopped fish, and is fond
of earthworms and soft insects. It finds
its food most readily under water.
(d) The Spotted Turtle -This has
the upper shell black with numerous
round yellow spots upon it. It is common
in ponds and marshy streams and its fa-
vorite perch is upon a log with many of
its companions. It feeds under water, eat-
ing insect larvae, dead fish, and vegetation.
It likes fresh lettuce.
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Spotted turtle, Clemmys guttata. The
range of the spotted turtles extends jrom
Michigan to Maine and south to Florida. In
captivity they often become very tame; they
prefer raw food — earthworms, aquatic in-
sects, ground beef, or fish
(e) The Wood Terrapin — This is our
most common turtle; it is found in damp
woods and wet places, since it lives largely
upon the land. Its upper shell often
reaches a length of six and one-half inches
and is made up of many plates, orna-
mented with concentric ridges. This is
the turtle upon whose shell people carve
initials and dates and then set it free.
All the fleshy parts of this turtle, except
the top of the head and the limbs, are
brick-red. It feeds on tender vegetables,
berries, and insects, but also enjoys
chopped meat. It makes an interesting
pet and will soon learn to eat from the
fingers of its master.
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Eggs of spotted turtle
Clemmys guttata
(f) The Box Turtle — This is easily
distinguished from the others, because the
front and rear portions of the lower shell
are hinged so that they can be pulled up
against the upper shell. When this turtle
is attacked, it draws into the shell and
closes both front and back doors, and is
very safe from its enemies. It lives entirely
upon land and feeds upon berries, tender
vegetation, and insects. It? too, in captivity
will eat chopped meat. It lives to a great
age.
A. A. and A. H. Wright
A young wood turtle
Clemmys insculpta
208
ANIMALS
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Box turtle, Terrapene major. One or more
species of box turtle can be found in almost
any portion of the United States from the
Rocky Mountains eastward
(g) The Soft-shelled Turtle — These
are found in streams and canals. The up-
per shell looks as if it were of one piece
of soft leather, and resembles a griddle-
cake. The neck is very long and the
head particularly snakelike with a piglike
snout. Although soft-shelled, these turtles
are far from soft-tempered, and must be
handled with care. In captivity they must
be kept in water.
SUGGESTED READING— Along the Brook,
by Raymond T. Fuller; Field Book of
Ponds and Streams, by Ann H. Morgan;
First Lessons in Nature Study, and Holi-
day Pond, both by Edith M. Patch; Hum-
phrey: One Hundred Years along the
Wayside with a Box Turtle, by Marjorie
Flack; The Spring of trie Year, by Dallas
Lore Sharp (Turtle Eggs for Agassiz);
also, readings on page 194.
A. A. and A. H. Wright
Soft-shelled turtle, Amyda emoryi. The
species pictured is found in Texas, Oklahoma,
and Arkansas; other species may be found
from Canada south to the Gulf and as jar
west as Colorado
LESSON 52
THE TURTLE
LEADING THOUGHT — The turtle's shell
is for the purpose of protecting its owner
from the attack of enemies. Some turtles
live upon land and others in water.
METHOD — A turtle of any kind, in the
schoolroom, is all that is needed to make
this lesson interesting.
OBSERVATIONS — i . How much can you
see of the turtle when it is walking? If
A snapping turtle
J. T. Lloyd
you disturb it what does it do? How much
of it can you see then? Can you see more
of it from the lower side than from the
upper? What is the advantage to the tur-
tle of having such a shell?
2. Compare the upper shell with the
lower as follows: How are they shaped
differently? What is their difference in
color? Would it be a disadvantage to the
turtle if the upper shell were as light col-
ored as the lower? Why? Make a drawing
of the upper and the lower shell showing
the shape of the plates of which they are
composed. Where are the two grown to-
gether?
3. Is the border of the upper shell dif-
ferent from the central portion in color
and markings? Is the edge smooth or scal-
loped?
REPTILES
209
4. How far does the turtle's head pro-
ject from the front of the shell? What is
the shape of the head? With what colors
and pattern is it marked? Describe the
eyes. How are they protected? How does
the turtle wink? Can you discover the
little eyelid which comes up from below
to cover the eye?
5. Describe the nose and nostrils. Do
you think the turtle has a keen sense of
smell?
6. Describe the mouth. Are there any
teeth? With what does it bite off its food?
Describe the movement of the throat.
What is the cause of this constant pulsa-
tion?
7. What is the shape of the leg? How
is it marked? How many claws on the
front feet? Are any of the toes webbed?
On which feet are the webbed toes? Why
should they be webbed? Describe the way
a turtle swims. Which feet are used for
oars?
8. Describe the tail. How much can
be seen from above when the turtle is
walking? What becomes of it, when the
turtle withdraws into its shell?
9. How much of the turtle's body can
you see? What is its color? Is it rough or
smooth?
10. What are the turtle's enemies?
How does it escape from them? What
noise does the turtle make when fright-
ened or angry?
11. Do all turtles live for part of the
time in water? What is their food and
where do they find it? Write an account
of all the species of turtles that you know.
12. How do turtle eggs look? Where are
they laid? How are they hidden?
LIZARDS
1 and 2. BANDED GECKO, Coleonyx brevis.
The gecko, a male, shown in (1) has lost the
tip of its fragile tail In (2) another gecko, a
female, is pictured with a complete tail. An
interesting fact about these creatures is that
after the tail has been lost another complete
tail may later be regenerated. This is char-
acteristic of lizards. The banded gecko is 2 to
3 inches long, and is yellow and brown in
color; its small scales give it a very soft, smooth
appearance.
Range: Found only in Texas. Habitat:
Under stones; it comes out at night.
3. CHAMELEON, Anolis carolinensis. This
well-known lizard changes color with tempera-
ture conditions: it may fade from dark brown
to pale green in three minutes. Often seen in
captivity, it can be fed on meal worms and
flies; it needs water to drink.
Range: North Carolina and Florida to the
Rio Grande.
4. FENCE LIZARD, Sceloporus thayeri. Like
other lizards, this animal eats insects. It is
about 5 inches long.
5. GLASS SNAKE or LEGLESS LIZARD,
Ophisaurus ventralis. This long, slender lizard
is smooth and glassy. It has a ground color of
olive, black, or brown, with greenish to black
markings, and a greenish white on the under
portions of the body. The long tail makes up
about two-thirds of the total length of the animal.
An average full-grown specimen is about 24
inches long, but some individuals may attain a
length of 3 feet. Like most other lizards, the glass
snake, if seized, can shed its tail. While its
astonished pursuer gazes at the tail, the body
escapes. A new tail begins to grow at once, but
it seems never to grow quite as large as the orig-
inal. The glass snake can be distinguished from
a true snake by an ear opening on each side of
the head, by numerous rows of small, overlapping
scales on its belly, and by movable eyelids.
Range: Virginia to Florida westward to
Nebraska, Wisconsin, and Mexico. Habitat;
Chiefly in the ground.
6. ALLIGATOR LIZARD or PLATED LIZARD,
Gerrhonotus inf emails. Whatever this lizard
hears must "go in one ear and out the other";
for one can look through the ear openings directly
through the head. These lizards, which are
about 18 inches long, make interesting pets.
Range: Southern Texas and northern Mex-
ico.
7. SONORAN SKINK, Eumeces obsoletus.
Skinks are seldom seen in captivity, for they
are hard to capture. They are active in day-
light. The females of some skinks stay with
their eggs until they hatch.
Range: Utah and Kansas to northern Mex-
ico. Other kinds are widely distributed over
North and Central America; there are many
in the Old World.
8. GILA MONSTER, Heloderma suspectum.
As far as is known, no two gila monsters show
exactly the same color patterns. Orange, salmon,
and brown or black are the chief colors, but they
are variously arranged. This and the closely re-
lated Mexican beaded lizard are the only poison-
ous lizards known in the New World. In the
gila monster the poison glands are situated in
the lower jaw and the venom flows out around
the teeth and gums* Therefore, since the teeth
are above the level of the glands, the poison some-
times does not enter a wound made by the teeth.
This lizard is rather sluggish and quite often
will not bite even if it is given a good chance to
do so. When it does bite, it holds on with a strong
grip. In walking it moves slowly and seems
awkward, but it is active enough to climb trees
and bushes, evidently in search of bird's eggs, of
which it is very fond. If it is given plenty of
drinking water, it can be kept in captivity for
years on a diet of hen's eggs.
Range: Arizona and New Mexico. Habitat;
Deserts.
Photographs by A. A. and A. H. Wright
LIZARDS
1 and 2. REGAL HORNED TOAD, Phrynosoma
solare. This lizard is called " regal " because
the row of spines across the sides and rear of
the head gives the effect of a crown. Its color
is yellowish, brownish, reddish, or grayish.
The eggs are shown in No. 2.
Range: Arizona and Lower California.
Other kinds are found throughout the western
and southwestern states and northern Mexico.
3. HORNED TOAD, Phrynosoma blainvillii.
These lizards, commonly called (lhorned toads"
are inhabitants of hot, dry regions. In the warmer
months they live above ground during the hours
of daylight, and are most active when the heat
is greatest. Before dark they bury themselves
in the sand. They hibernate in winter. In color
they often resemble somewhat the ground where
they live. A strange habit of the horned toad is
that cf " squirting blood " from one or both eyes,
perhaps as a means of self-defense. The blood
has not been found to be poisonous, and must
be ejected more to scare than actually to injure
the enemy. The horned toad can be tamed, and
is often kept for a pet. All too often, however, its
owner does not provide enough of the right kind
of food — various kinds of small insects — for it,
and in such circumstances its ability to live for
a long time without food or water serves only to
prolong its discomfort. In the Southwest these
lizards are sometimes stuffed and sold to tourists
as souvenirs, but some states have passed laws
prohibiting such sales.
Range: San Francisco into Lower Cali-
fornia.
4. HORNED TOADS FEEDING ON ANTS. In
this picture several kinds of horned toads are
shown feeding on ants in a pile of sand. They
did not dash into the pile, but stood about it
in a circle and caught the ants as they came out.
5. MALE FENCE LIZARD, Sceloporus spino-
sus. On either side of the belly the male lizard
Photographs by A.
has a large blue or purple spot margined with
black. Such marks are used to identify many
male lizards.
Range: Northern Mexico, New Mexico, and
Texas to western Florida. Habitat: Trunks of
standing or fallen trees.
6. MOUNTAIN BOOMER or COLLARED LIZ-
ARD, Crotaphytus collaris baileyi. This un-
usual looking animal makes a good pet if enough
food can be provided for it. It lives chiefly on
insects and blossoms of various plants, but it
also has cannibalistic habits, and so must not
be kept in a cage with other lizards of equal or
smaller size. It is found about rocks at high
altitudes. If alarmed or pursued, it runs until it
can find a crevice in the rocks. It is a swift
runner and a high jumper, being able to clear
an object as much as two feet high. In the hottest
part of the day its colors seem brighter than
during the cooler hours.
Range: Southwestern United States and
Mexico. Habitat: Dry, rocky regions.
7. WHIP-TAIL or RACE RUNNER, Cnemi-
dophorus gularis. These striped lizards are
active all day under the hottest sun in open
areas. In the specimen pictured here, note the
balls of dirt on its toes from running in soft
dirt after a rain.
Range: Southwestern United States and
northern Mexico. A six-line race runner is
common in the East.
8. CHUCK-WALLA, Sauromalus obesus. This
large lizard, 10 to 16 inches long, is a vege-
tarian. It protects itself by escaping into
crevices. This specimen ran into a crevice and
puffed himself up to such a size that it was
hard to get him out.
Range: Southwestern United States. Habi-
tat: Rocky places in desert areas.
A. and A. H. Wright
MAMMALS
Mammals, in contrast to fishes, am-
phibians, and reptiles, are warm-blooded
animals, as are birds. The skin of most
mammals is more or less hairy, in con-
trast to the scale-covered fish and the
feathered birds. The young of most mam-
mals are born alive, whereas the young of
birds, fish, amphibians, and some species
Marthe Ann, one year old. Human beings are
mammals
of reptiles hatch from eggs. After birth
young mammals breathe by lungs rather
than by gills as do the fish; for a time they
are nourished with milk produced by the
mother.
Great variations exist in the mammal
group. Some of the typical animals in the
mammal group which illustrate these vari-
ations are opossum, armadillo, whale,
deer, buffalo, rabbit, mouse, woodchuck,
mole, bat, bear, horse, cat, dog, and man.
Man has always depended a great deal
on the lower mammal forms; he uses
them for food, clothing, transportation,
and numerous other purposes. Many
forms are domesticated and have served
as man's obedient servants for many cen-
turies.
Some of the so-called game animals
have suffered wanton destruction at the
hands of " civilized man/7 but in more
recent years many laws and regulations
have been passed to give these animals
more chances to live. Even more stringent
laws are needed and rigid enforcement
must be exacted if wild animals in gen-
eral are to be expected to increase in
number.
SUGGESTED READING — Along Nature's
Trails, by Lillian C. Athey; Animals of
America, edited by H. E. Anthony; The
Book about Animals, published by Fred-
erick Warne and Company; Field Boole
of North American Mammals, by H. E.
Anthony; Homes and Habits of Wild
Animals, by Karl P. Schmidt; Lives of
Game Animals, by Ernest Thompson
Seton; Nature — by Seaside and Way-
side, by Mary G. Phillips and Julia M.
Wright, Book 4, Our Earth and Its Life;
Our Great Outdoors, Mammals, by C.
W. G. Eifrig; Our Wild Animals, by
Edwin L. Moseley; Out of Doors: A
Guide to Nature, by Paul B. Mann and
George T. Hastings; The Picture Book of
Animals, The Second Picture Book of
Animals, both by Isabel E. Lord; Present
Day Mammals, by Claude W. Leister;
The Stir of Nature, by William H. Carr;
Tracks and Trails, by Leonard Rossell;
Wild Animals of North America, by E.
W. Nelson; additional references are to
be found in the bibliography in the back
of this Handbook, under various head-
ings: Mammals, Animals in General,
Nature-study in General, Textbooks
and Readers, Nature Poetry, Magazines
and Periodicals, Books for Parents and
Teachers.
MAMMALS
215
THE COTTON-TAIL RABBIT
The Bunnies are a feeble folk whose weakness is their strength.
To shun a gun a Bun will run to almost any length. — OLIVER HERFORD
It is well for Molly Cotton-tail and her
family that they have learned to shun
more than guns, for almost every preda-
tory animal and bird makes a dinner of
them on every possible occasion. But de-
spite these enemies, moreover, with the
addition of guns, men, and dogs, the
cotton-tail lives and flourishes in our
midst. A " Molly " raised two families last
year in a briar-patch back of our garden
on the Cornell campus, where dogs of
many breeds abound; and after each fresh
fall of snow this winter we have been able
to trace our bunny neighbors in their
night wanderings around the house, be-
neath the spruces and in the orchard.
The track consists of two long splashes,
paired, and between and a little behind
them, two smaller ones; the rabbit uses
its front feet as a boy uses a vaulting pole
and lands the hind feet on each side and
ahead of them; because the bottoms of the
feet are hairy the print is not clear-cut.
When the rabbit is not in a hurry it has a
peculiar lope, but when frightened it
makes long jumps. The cotton-tails are
night wanderers and usually remain hid-
den during the day. In summer, they feed
on clover or grass or other juicy herbs and
show a fondness for sweet apples and fresh
cabbage; in our garden last summer Molly
was very considerate. She carefully pulled
all the grass out of the garden-cress bed,
leaving the salad for our enjoyment. In
winter, the long, gnawing teeth of the
cotton-tail are sometimes used to the dam-
age of fruit trees and nursery stock since
the rabbits are obliged to feed upon bark
in order to keep alive.
The long, strong hind legs and the long
ears tell the whole bunny story. Ears to
hear the approach of the enemy, and legs
to propel the listener by long jumps to
a safe retreat. The attitude of the ears
is a good indication of the bunny's state
of mind; if they are set back to back and
directed backward, they indicate placidity,
but a placidity that is always on guard; if
lifted straight up they signify attention
and anxiety; if one is bent forward and the
other backward the meaning is: "Now
just where did that sound come from? "
A cotton-tail rabbit
When the rabbit is running or resting in
the form, the ears are laid back along the
neck. When the cotton-tail stands up on
its haunches with both ears erect, it looks
very tall indeed.
Not only are the ears always alert, but
also the nose; the nostrils are partially
covered and in order to be always sure of
getting every scent they wabble con-
stantly, the split upper lip aiding in this
performance; when the rabbit is trying
to get a scent it moves its head up and
down in a sagacious, apprehensive man-
ner.
The rabbit has an upper and lower
2l6
ANIMALS
Verne Morton
The rabbits' ears are ever alert for any sign
of danger
pair of incisors like other rodents, but on
the upper jaw there is a short incisor be-
hind each of the large teeth; these are of
no use now but are inherited from some
ancestor which found them useful. There
are at the back of each side of the upper
jaw six grinding teeth, and five on each
side of the lower jaw. The split upper
lip allows the free use of the upper in-
cisors. The incisors are not only used for
taking the bark from trees, but also for
cutting grass and other food. The rabbit
has a funny way of taking a stem of grass
or clover at the end and with much wab-
bling of lips finally taking it in, mean-
while chewing it with a sidewise motion
of the jaws. The rabbit's whiskers are val-
uable as feelers, and are always kept on
the qui vfve for impressions; when two
cotton-tails meet each other amicably,
they rub whiskers together. The eyes are
large and dark and placed on the bulge
at the side of the head, so as to command
the view both ways. Probably a cotton-
tail winks, but I never caught one in the
act.
The strong hind legs of the rabbit en-
able it to make prodigious jumps, of eight
feet or more; this is a valuable asset to
an animal that escapes its enemies by
running. The front feet are short and can-
not be turned inward like those of the
squirrel, to hold food. There are five toes
on the front feet, and four on the hind
feet; the hair on the bottom of the feet
is a protection, much .needed by an ani-
mal which sits for long periods upon the
snow. When sleeping, the rabbit folds the
front paws under and rests on the entire
hind foot, with the knee bent, ready for a
spring at the slightest alarm; when awake,
it rests on the hind feet and front toes; and
when it wishes to see if the coast is clear,
it rises on its hind feet, with front paws
drooping.
The cotton-tail has a color well calcu-
lated to protect it from observation; it is
brownish-gray on the back and a little
lighter along the sides, grayish under the
chin and whitish below; the ears are edged
with black, and the tail when raised shows
a large, white fluff at the rear. The gen-
eral color of the rabbit fits in with nat-
ural surroundings; since the cotton-tail
often escapes its enemies by " freezing,"
this color makes the scheme work well,
I once saw a marsh hare, on a stone in
a brook, " freezing " most successfully. I
could hardly believe that a living thing
could seem so much like a stone; only its
bright eyes revealed it to us.
The rabbit cleans itself in amusing
ways. It shakes its feet one at a time
with great vigor and rapidity to get off
the dirt and then licks them clean. It
washes its face with both front paws at
once. It scratches its ear with the hind
foot, and pushes it forward so that it can
be licked; it takes hold of its fur with its
front feet to pull it around within reach
of the tongue.
The cotton-tail does not dig a burrow,
A Dutch rabbit and Belgian hares
MAMMALS
217
but sometimes occupies the deserted bur-
row of a woodchuck or skunk. Its nest
is called a " form/' which simply means
a place beneath a cover of grass or briars,
where the grass is beaten down or eaten
out for a space large enough for the ani-
mal to sit. The mother prepares a shal-
low excavation in which she makes a soft
bed for the young, using grass and her
own hair for the purpose; and she con-
structs a coarse felted coverlet, under
which she tucks her babies with care
every time she leaves them. Young rab-
bits are blind at first, but when about
three weeks old are sufficiently grown to
run quite rapidly. Although there may be
five or six in a litter, yet there are so many
enemies that only a few escape.
Fox, mink, weasel, hawk, owl, snake,
and occasionally red squirrel all relish the
young cotton-tail if they can get it. Noth-
ing but its runways through the briars can
save it. These roads wind in and out and
across, twisting and turning perplexingly;
they are made by cutting off the grass
stems, and are just wide enough for the
rabbit's body. However, a rabbit has
weapons and can fight if necessary; it leaps
over its enemy, kicking it on the back
fiercely with its great hind feet. Mr. Seton
tells of this way of conquering the black
snake, and Mr. Sharp saw a cat completely
vanquished by the same method. Mr. E.
W. Cleeves told me of a Belgian doe
which showed her enmity to cats in a
peculiar way. She would run after any cats
that came in sight, butting them like a billy
goat. The cats soon learned her tricks, and
would climb a tree as soon as they caught
sight of her. The rabbit can also bite, and
when two males are fighting, they bite
each other savagely. The rabbit's sound of
defiance is thumping the ground with the
strong hind foot. Some have declared that
the front feet are used also for stamping;
although I have heard this indignant
thumping more than once, I could not see
the process. The cotton-tail and the com-
mon domestic rabbit are true rabbits. The
jack rabbit is a true hare.
Not the least of tributes to the rabbit's
sagacity are the Negro folk stories told
"by Uncle Remus, wherein Brer Rabbit,
although often in trouble, is really the
most clever of all the animals. I have
often thought when I have seen the tac-
tics which rabbits have adopted to escape
dogs, that we in the North have under-
rated the cleverness of this timid animal.
In one instance at least that came under
our observation, a cotton-tail led a dog
to the verge of a precipice, then doubled
Rabbits playing in the moonlight
back to safety, while the dog went over,
landing on the rocks nearly three hundred
feet below.
An interesting relative of the cotton-
tail is the varying hare or snow-shoe rabbit
that lives in the wooded regions of north-
eastern North America. Of all animals he
is one of the most defenseless; foxes,
mink, and other flesh-eating inhabitants
of the woods find him an easy prey. He has
not even a burrow to flee to when pur-
sued by his enemies.
He passes the day half asleep and mo-
tionless beneath the sheltering branches
of a low fir tree or in a dense thicket. With
the coming of night he starts off in search
of food.
He has one important advantage over
his enemies: twice each year his heavy
coat of fur is shed. In the summer the
coat is a reddish brown that so blends
with his surroundings that he is hardly
noticeable; in the winter it is perfectly
2l8
ANIMALS
white so that against a background of
snow he is nearly invisible.
SUGGESTED READING — Farm Animals,
by James G. Lawson; Holiday Hill, by
Edith M. Patch; Mother Nature Series,
by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor Trox-
ell, Book i, Baby Animals; The Museum
Comes to Life, by Maribelle Cormack
and William P. Alexander; Our Backdoor
Neighbors, by Frank C. Pellett; The Pet
Boole, by Anna B. Cornstock; Wild Ani-
mals I Have Known, or Lobor Rag and
Vixen, both by Ernest Thompson Seton;
also, readings on page 214.
LESSON 53
THE COTTON-TAIL RABBIT
LEADING THOUGHT — The cotton-tail
thrives amid civilization; its color protects
it from sight; its long ears give it warning
of the approach of danger; and its long
legs enable it to run by swift, long leaps.
It feeds upon grasses, clover, vegetables,
and other herbs.
METHOD — This study may be begun
in the winter, when the rabbit tracks can
be observed and the haunts of the cotton-
tail discovered. If caught in a box trap,
the cotton-tail will become tame if prop-
erly fed and cared for, and may thus be
studied at close range. The cage I have
used for rabbits thus caught is made of
wire screen nailed to a frame, making a
wire-covered box two feet high and two or
three feet square, with a door at one side
and no bottom. It should be placed upon
oilcloth or linoleum, and thus may be
moved to another carpet when the floor
needs cleaning. If it is impossible to study
the cotton-tail, the domestic rabbit may
be used instead.
OBSERVATIONS — i. What sort of tracks
does the cotton-tail make in the snow?
Describe and sketch them. Where do you
find these tracks? How do you know
which way the rabbit was going? Follow
the track and see if you can find where
the rabbit went. When were these tracks
made, by night or by day? What does
the rabbit do during the day? What does
it find to eat during the winter? How are
its feet protected so that they do not
freeze in the snow?
2. What are the two most noticeable
peculiarities of the rabbit? Of what use
are such large ears? How are the ears held
when the rabbit is resting? When star-
tled? When not quite certain about the
direction of the noise? Explain the rea-
sons for these attitudes. When the rabbit
wishes to make an observation to see if
there is danger coming, what does it do?
How does it hold its ears then? How are
the ears held when the animal is running?
3. Do you think the rabbit has a keen
sense of smell? Describe the movements
of the nostrils and explain the reason.
How does it move its head to be sure of
getting the scent?
4. What peculiarity is there in the up-
per lip? How would this be an aid to the
rabbit when gnawing? Describe the teeth:
how do these differ from those of the
mouse or squirrel? Of what advantage are
the gnawing teeth to the rabbit? How
does it eat a stem of grass? Note the rab-
bit's whiskers. What do you think they
are used for?
5. Describe the eyes. How are they
placed so that the rabbit can see forward
and backward? Do you think that it sleeps
with its eyes open? Does it wink?
6. Why is it advantageous to the rab-
bit to have such long, strong hind legs?
Compare them in size with the front legs.
Compare the front and hind feet. How
many toes on each? How are the bottoms
of the feet protected? Are the front feet
ever used for holding food like the squir-
rel's? In what position are the legs when
the rabbit is resting? When it is standing?
When it is lifted up for observation?
7. How does the cotton-tail escape be-
ing seen? Describe its coat. Of what use is
the white fluff beneath the tail? Have you
ever seen a wild rabbit " freeze "? What
is meant by " freezing " and what is the
use of it?
8. In making its toilet how does the
rabbit clean its face, ears, feet, and fur?
9. What do the cotton-tails feed upon
during the summer? During the winter?
Do they ever do much damage?
MAMMALS
2,19
10. Describe the cotton-tail's nest.
What is it called? Does it ever burrow in
the ground? Does it ever use a second-
hand burrow? Describe the nest made for
the young by the mother. Of what is the
bed composed? Of what is the coverlet
made? What is the special use of the
coverlet? How do the young cotton-tails
look? How old are they before they are
able to take care of themselves?
11. What are the cotton-tail's enemies?
How does it escape them? Have you ever
seen the rabbit roads in a briar-patch?
Do you think that a dog or fox could fol-
low them? Do rabbits ever fight their ene-
mies? If so, how? How do they show
anger? Do they stamp with the front or
the hind foot?
12. Tell how the cotton-tail differs in
looks and habits from the common tame
rabbit. How do the latter dig their bur-
rows? How many breeds of tame rabbits
do you kno\v?
13. Write or tell stories on the follow-
ing topics: " A Cotton-tail's Story of
Its Own Life until It Is a Year Old ";
" The Jack Rabbit of the West "; " The
Habits of the White Rabbit or Varying
Hare "; " The Rabbit in Uncle Remus'
Tales/'
Silas Lottridge
Winter lodge of muskrats
THE MUSKRAT
Having finished this first course of big-neclc clams, they were joined by a third
muskrat, and, together, they filed over the bank and down into the meadow. Shortly
two of them returned with great mouthfuls of the mud-bleached ends of calamus-
blades. Then followed the washing.
They dropped their loads upon the plank, took up the stalks, pulled the blades apart,
and soused them up and down in the water, rubbing them with their paws until they
were as clean and white as the whitest celery one ever ate. What a dainty picture/
Two little brown creatures, humped on the edge of a plank, washing calamus in
moonlit water/ — DALLAS LORE SHARP
Tracking is a part of the education of
every boy who aspires to a knowledge of
wood lore; and a boy with this accom-
plishment is sure to be looked upon with
great admiration by other boys less
skilled in the interpretation of that writ-
220
ANIMALS
The Muskrat
Silas Lottridge
ing made by small feet on the soft snow
or on the mud of stream margins. To
such a boy, the track of the muskrat is
well known and very easily recognized.
The muskrat is essentially a water ani-
mal, and therefore its tracks are to be
looked for along the edges of ponds,
streams, or in marshes. Whether the
tracks are made by walking or jumping
depends upon the depth of the snow or
mud; if it is deep, the animal jumps, but
in shallow snow or mud it simply runs
along. The tracks show the front feet to
be smaller than the hind ones. The musk-
rat track is, however, characterized by the
tail imprint. When the creature jumps
through the snow, the mark of the tail
follows the paired imprints of the feet;
when it walks, there is a continuous line
made by this strong, naked tail. This dis-
tinguishes the track of the muskrat from
that of the mink, as the bushy tail of the
latter does not make so distinct a mark.
Furthermore the claws of the feet show
distinctly in a muskrat track; those of
the mink do not. Measuring the track is
a simple device for making the pupils
note its size and shape more carefully.
The tracks may be looked for during the
thaws of March or February, when the
muskrats come out of the water to seek
food.
In appearance the muskrat is peculiar.
The body is usually about a foot in length
and the tail about eight inches. The body
is stout and thickset, the head is rounded
and looks like that of a giant meadow
mouse; the eyes are black and shining;
the ears are short and close to the head;
the teeth, like those of other rodents,
consist of a pair of front teeth on each
jaw, then a long, bare space, and then four
grinders on each side. There are long
sensitive hairs about the nose and mouth,
like the whiskers of mice.
The muskrat's hind legs are much
larger and stronger than the front ones;
the hind feet are likewise much longer
than the front feet and have a web be-
tween the toes; there are also stiff hairs
which fill the space between the toes
outside the web, thus making this large
hind foot an excellent swimming organ.
The front toes are not webbed and are
used for digging. The claws are long, stout,
and sharp. The tail is long, stout, and flat-
tened at the sides; it has little or no fur
upon it but is covered with scales; it is
used as a scull and also as a rudder when
the muskrat is swimming.
The muskrat' s outer coat consists of
long, rather coarse hairs; its under coat
is of fur, very thick and fine, and although
short, it forms a waterproof protection for
the body of the animal. In color, the fur
is dark brown above with a darker streak
along the middle of the back; beneath,
the body is grayish, changing to whitish
on the throat and lips, with a brown spot
on the chin. In preparing the pelts for
commercial use, the long hairs are some-
A muskrat' s summer home, drawn by A.
MacKinnon, a boy of thirteen years
MAMMALS
221
times plucked out leaving the soft, fine
under coat, which is often dyed black
and sold under the name of "" Hudson
seal/'
The muskrat is far better fitted by form
for life in the water than upon the land.
Since it is heavy-bodied and short-legged
it cannot run rapidly, but its strong,
webbed hind feet are most efficient oars,
and it swims rapidly and easily; for rud-
der and propeller the strong, flattened
tail serves admirably, while the fine fur
next the body is so perfectly waterproof
that, however much the muskrat swims
or dives, it is never wet. It is a skillful
diver and can stay under water for several
minutes; when swimming, its nose and
sometimes the head and the tip of the
tail appear on the surface of the water.
The food of muskrats is largely roots,
especially those of the sweet flag and the
yellow lily. Muskrats also feed on other
aquatic plants and are fond of the fresh-
water shell-fish. Mr. Sharp tells us, in one
of his delightful stories, how the musk-
rats wash their food by sousing it up and
down in water many times before eating
it. Often, a muskrat chooses some special
place upon the shore which it uses for a
dining room, bringing there and eating
pieces of lily root or fresh-water clams,
and leaving the debris to show where it
habitually dines. It does most of its hunt-
ing for food at night, although sometimes
Frank H. Steinicke
A beaver lodge in winter. In the foreground
is the " air hole!3 In general this home looks
like that of the muskrat, but it is larger and is
made of coarser materials
National Parks Bureau, Dominion of Canada
Adult Beaver. The habits of beavers some-
what resemble those of muskrats. Beavers
may weigh from 40 to 60 pounds and reach
a length of 40 inches. In North America they
range from Hudson Bay and Alaska south
into Mexico in the West and the southern
Alleghenies in the East
it may be seen thus employed during the
day.
The winter lodge of the muskrat is a
most interesting structure. A foundation
of tussocks of rushes, in a stream or shal-
low pond, is built upon with reeds, mak-
ing a rather regular dome which may be
nearly two or three feet high; or, if many-
chambered, it may be a grand affair of
four or five feet elevation; but it always
looks so much like a natural hummock
that the eye of the uninitiated never re-
gards it as a habitation. Beneath this
dome and above the water line is a snug,
covered chamber carpeted with a soft bed
of leaves and moss, which has a passage
leading down into the water below, and
in some instances an air-hole. In these
cabins, closely cuddled together, three or
four in a chamber, the muskrats pass the
winter. After the pond is frozen they are
safe from their enemies except the mink
and are always able to go down into the
water and feed upon the roots of water
plants. These cabins are sometimes built
in the low, drooping branches of willows
or on other objects.
Whether the muskrat builds itself a
winter lodge or not depends upon the
nature of the shore which it inhabits; if
it is a place particularly Stted for burrows,
then a burrow will be used as a winter
222 ANIMALS
retreat; but if the banks are shallow, the
muskrats unite in building cabins. The
main entrance to the muskrat burrow is
usually below the surface of the water,
the burrow slanting upward and leading
to a nest well lined, which is above the
reach of high water; there is also often a
National Parks Bureau, Dominion of Canada
Young beavers feeding in the shallow water
near the lower edge of a beaver dam
passage, with a hidden entrance, leading
out to dry land.
The flesh of the muskrat is delicious,
and therefore the animal has many ene-
mies; foxes, weasels, dogs, minks, and also
hawks and owls prey upon it. It is, in-
deed, a good human food. It escapes the
sight of its enemies as does the mouse,
by having inconspicuous fur; when dis-
covered, it escapes its enemies by swim-
ming, although when cornered it is cou-
rageous and fights fiercely, using its strong
incisors as weapons. In winter, it dwells
in safety when the friendly ice protects
it from all its enemies except the mink;
but it is exposed to great danger when
the streams break up in spring, for it is
then often driven from its cabin by floods,
and preyed upon while thus helplessly
exposed.
It is called muskrat because of the odor,
somewhat resembling musk, which it ex-
cretes from two glands on the lower side
of -the body between the hind legs; these
glands may be seen when the skin is re-
moved, which is the too common plight
of this poor creature, since it is hunted
mercilessly for its pelt.
The little muskrats are bom in April
and there are usually from three to seven
in a litter. Another litter may be produced
in June or July and a third in August or
September. It is only thus, by rearing
large families often, that the muskrats are
able to hold their own against the hunters
and trappers and their natural enemies.
SUGGESTED READING — The Beaver: Its
Worlc and Its Ways, by Edward R. War-
ren; Beaver Pioneers, by Wendell and
Lucie Chapman; The Fall of the Year,
and Winter, both by Dallas L. Sharp; also,
readings on page 214.
LESSON 54
THE MUSKRAT
LEADING THOUGHT -— The muskrat,
while a true rodent, is fitted for life in
the water more than for life upon the
land. Its hind feet are webbed for use as
oars and its tail is used as a rudder. It
builds lodges of cattails and rushes in
which it spends the winter.
METHOD — It might be well to begin
this work by asking for observations on
the tracks of the muskrat which may be
found about the edges of almost any
creek, pond, or marsh. If there are musk-
rat lodges in the region they should be
visited and described. For studying the
muskrat's form a live muskrat in captivity
is almost necessary. The pupils can thus
study it at leisure although they should
not be allowed to handle the creature as
it inflicts very severe wounds and is never
willing to be handled. If a live muskrat
cannot be obtained, perhaps some hunter
in the neighborhood will supply a dead
one for this observation lesson.
While studying the muskrat the chil-
dren should read all the stories of beavers
which are available, as the two animals
are very much alike in their habits.
OBSERVATIONS — i . In what locality
have you discovered the tracks of the
muskrat? Describe its general appearance.
Measure the muskrat's track as follows:
MAMMALS
223
(a) width and length of the print of one
foot; (b) the width between the prints
of the two hind feet; (c) the length be-
tween the prints made by the hind feet in
several successive steps or jumps.
2. Was the muskrafs track made when
the animal was jumping or walking? Can
you see in it a difference in the size of
the front and hind feet? Judging from
the track, where do you think the musk-
rat came from? What do you think it was
hunting for?
3. What mark does the tail make in
the snow or mud? Judging by its imprint,
should you think the niuskraf s tail was
long or short, bare or brushy, slender or
stout?
4. How long is the largest muskrat you
'3ver saw? How much of the whole length
is tail? Is the general shape of the body
short and heavy or long and slender?
5. Describe the muskrat7 s eyes, ears,
and teeth. For what are the teeth espe-
cially fitted? Has the muskrat whiskers
like mice and rats?
6. Compare the front and hind legs as
to size and shape. Is there a web between
the toes of the hind feet? What does
this indicate? Do you think that the
muskrat is a good swimmer?
7. Describe the muskrat fur. Compare
the outer and under coat. What is its
color above and below? What is the name
of muskrat fur in the shops?
8. Describe the tail. What is its cover-
ing? How is it flattened? What do you
think this strong, flattened tail is used
for?
9. Do you think the muskrat is better
fitted to live in the water than on land?
How is it fitted to live in the water in the
following particulars: Feet? Tail? Fur?
10. How much of the muskrat can you
see when it is swimming? How long can
it stay under water when diving?
11. What is the food of the muskrat?
Where does it find it? How does it pre-
pare the food for eating? Does it seek
its food during the night or day? Have you
ever observed the muskraf s dining room?
If so, describe it.
12. Describe the structure of the musk-
rat's winter lodge, or cabin, in the follow-
ing particulars: What is its size? Where
built? Of what material? How many
rooms in it? Are these rooms above or be-
low the water level? Of what is the bed
made? How is it arranged so that the en-
trance is not closed by the ice? Is such a
home built by one or more muskrats? How
many live within it? Do the muskrats al-
ways build these winter cabins? What is
the character of the shores where they are
built?
13. Describe the muskrat's burrow in
the bank in the following particulars: Is
the entrance above or below water?
Where and how is the nest made? Is it
ventilated? Does it have a back door lead-
ing out upon the land?
14. What are the muskrat's enemies?
How does it escape them? How does it
fight? Is it a courageous animal? How does
the muskrat give warning to its fellows
when it perceives danger? At what time
of year is it comparatively safe? At what
time is it exposed to greatest danger?
15. Why is this animal called muskrat?
Compare the habits of muskrats with
Leonard K. Beyer
Trees felled by beavers. Unlike muskrats,
beavers fell trees. They have cut these birches
either to use the bark for food or the trunks
jor reinforcement of a dam. In the back-
ground, note the area covered by water held
by a beaver dam
those of beavers and write an English
theme upon the similarity of the two.
16. At what time of year do you find
the young muskrats? How many in a
litter?
ANIMALS
Nature Photography around the Year, Percy A. Morris,
© D. Appleton-Century Co., Inc.
THE HOUSE MOUSE
Somewhere in the darkness a clock strikes two;
And there is no sound in the sad old house,
But the long veranda dripping with dew,
And in the wainscot — a mouse. — BRET HARTE
Were mouse-gray a less inconspicuous
color, there would be fewer mice; when
a mouse is running along the floor, it is
hardly discernible, it looks so like a flit-
ting shadow; if it were black or white or
any other color, it would be more often
seen and destroyed. It has been very
closely associated with man; as a result
of this fact the species has been able to
spread over the world.
At first glance one wonders what pos-
sible use a mouse can make of a tail which
is as long as its body, but a little careful
observation will reveal the secret. The tail
is covered with transverse ridges and is
bare save for sparse hairs, except toward
the tip. Dr. Ida Revel ey first called my
attention to the fact that the house mouse
uses its tail in climbing. I verified this in-
teresting observation, and found that my
mouse used the tail for aid when climbing
a string. He would go up the string hand
over hand like a sailor, and then in trying
to stretch to the edge of his jar, he in-
variably wound his tail about the string
two or three times, and hanging to the
string with the hind feet and tail, would
reach far out with his head and front feet.
Also, when clinging to the edge of the
cover of the jar, he invariably used his
tail as a brace against the side of the glass,
so that it pressed hard for more than half
its length. Undoubtedly the tail is of great
service in climbing up the sides of walls.
The tail is also of some use when the
mouse jumps directly upward. The hind
legs are very much longer and stronger
than the front legs. The hind feet are also
much longer and larger than the front
feet; and although the mouse, when it
MAMMALS
225
makes its remarkable jumps, depends
upon its strong hind legs, I am sure that
often the tail is used as a brace to guide
and assist the leap. The feet are free from
hairs but are downy; the hind foot has
three front toes, a long toe behind on the
outside and a short one on the inside.
The claws are fairly long and very sharp
so that they are able to cling to almost
anything but glass. When exploring, a
mouse stands on its hind feet, folding its
little front paws under its chin while it
reaches up ready to catch anything in
sight; it can stretch up to an amazing
height. It feeds upon almost anything that
people like to eat and, when eating, fre-
quently holds its food in its front paws
like a squirrel.
The thin, velvety ears are flaring cornu-
copias for taking in sound; the large,
rounded outer ear can be moved forward
or back to test the direction of the noise.
The eyes are like shining, black beads;
and if a mouse can wink, it does it so
rapidly as not to be discernible. The nose
is long, inquisitive, and always sniffing
for new impressions. The whiskers are
delicate and probably sensitive. The
mouth is furnished with two long, curved
gnawing teeth at the front of each jaw,
then a bare space, and then four grinding
teeth on each side, above and below, like
the teeth of woodchucks and other ro-
dents. The gnawing teeth are very strong
and enable the mouse to gnaw through
board partitions and other obstacles.
The energy with which the mouse
cleans itself is inspiring to behold. It
nibbles its fur and licks it with fervor,
reaching around so as to get at it from
behind, and taking hold with its little
hands to hold firm while it cleans. When
washing its face and head, it uses both
front feet, licking them clean and rub-
bing them both simultaneously from be-
hind the ears down over the face. It takes
its hind foot in both front feet and nib-
bles and licks it. It scratches the back of
its head with its hind foot.
Young mice are small, downy, pink, and
blind when born. The mother makes for
them a nice, soft nest of pieces of cloth,
paper, grass, or whatever is at hand; the
nest is round like a ball and at its center
is nestled the family. Mice living in
houses have runways between the plaster
and the outside wall, or between ceiling
and floor. In winter they live on what
food they can find, and upon flies or other
insects hibernating in our houses. The
house mice sometimes live under stacks
of corn or grain in the fields, but usually
confine themselves to houses or barns.
Verne Morton
Young field mice, blind, pink, and hairless
They are thirsty little fellows and they
like to make their nests within easy reach
of water.
Our house mice came from ancestors
which lived in Asia originally; they have
always been great travelers and they have
followed men wherever they have gone,
over the world. They came to America on
ships with the first explorers and the Pil-
grim fathers. They now travel back and
forth, crossing the ocean in ships of all
sorts. They also travel across the continent
on trains. Wherever our food is carried
they go; and the mouse which you see in
your room one day may be a thousand
miles away within a week. They are clever
creatures, and learn quickly to connect
cause and effect. For two years I was in an
office in Washington, and while there I
observed that as soon as the bell rang for
noon, the mice would appear instantly,
hunting wastebaskets for scraps of lunch.
They had learned to connect the sound of
the bell with food.
226
ANIMALS
Anna Stryke
A white-footed or deer mouse may use an
old bird's nest for its home
Of all our wild mice, the white-footed
or deer mouse is the most interesting
and attractive. It is found almost exclu-
sively in woods and is quite different in
appearance from other mice. Its ears are
very large; its fur is fine and beautiful and
a most delicate gray in color. It is white
beneath the head and under the sides of
the body. The feet are pinkish, the front
paws have short thumbs, while the hind
feet are very much longer and have a long
thumb which looks like an elfin hand in
a gray-white silk glove. On the bottom of
the feet are callous spots which are pink
and serve as foot pads. This mouse makes
its nest in hollow trees and stores nuts
for winter use. We once found two quarts
of shelled beechnuts in such a nest. It
also likes the hips of the wild rose and
many kinds of berries; it sometimes makes
its home in a bird's nest, which it roofs
over to suit itself. The young mice are
usually carried in the mother's mouth,
one at a time. As an inhabitant of sum-
mer cottages, white-foot is cunning and
mischievous; it pulls cotton out of quilts,
takes covers from jars, and as an explorer
is equal to the squirrel. I once tried to
rear some young deer mice by feeding
them warm milk with a pipette; although
their eyes were not open, they invariably
washed their faces after each meal, show-
ing that neatness was bred in the bone.
This mouse has a musical voice and often
chirps as sweetly as a bird. Like the house
mouse it is more active at night.
The meadow mouse is the one that
makes its runways under the snow, mak-
ing strange corrugated patterns over the
ground which attract our attention in
spring. It has a heavy body, short legs,
short ears, and a short tail. It is brownish
or blackish in color. It sometimes digs
burrows straight into the ground, but
more often makes its nest in waste mead-
ows. It is the nest of this field mouse
which the bumblebee so often takes
possession of, after it is deserted. The
meadow mouse is a good fighter, sitting
up like a woodchuck and facing its enemy
bravely. It needs to be courageous, for
it is preyed upon by almost every creature
that feeds upon small animals; the hawks
and owls especially are its enemies. It is
well for the farmer that these mice have
so many enemies, for they multiply rap-
idly and would otherwise soon overrun
and destroy the grain fields. They cause
tremendous damage by girdling valuable
fruit trees. This mouse is an excellent
swimmer.
A part of winter work is to make the
pupils familiar with the tracks of the
meadow mice and to teach them how to
distinguish them from other tracks.
Country Life in America
A white-footed mouse at her own doorway in
the woods
MAMMALS
Trapping Field Mice — Probably wild
animals have endured more cruelty
through the agency of traps than through
any other form of human persecution. The
savage steel traps often catch the animal
by the leg, holding it until it gnaws off
the imprisoned foot, and thus escapes
maimed and handicapped for its future
struggle for food; or if the trap gets a
strong hold, the poor creature may suffer
tortures during a long period, before the
owner of the trap appears to put an end
to its sufferings by death. If box traps are
used, they are often neglected and the
imprisoned animal is left to languish and
starve. The teacher cannot enforce too
strongly upon the child the ethics of trap-
ping. Impress upon him that the box traps
are far less cruel; but that if set, they must
be examined regularly and not neglected.
The study of mice affords a good oppor-
tunity for giving the children a lesson in
humane trapping. Let them set a tin-can
trap for meadow mice or deer mice. They
must examine the traps every morning.
The little prisoners may be brought to
school and studied; meanwhile, they
should be treated kindly and fed bounti-
fully. After a mouse has been studied it
should be set free, even though it be one
of the quite pestiferous field mice. The
moral effect of killing an animal after a
227
Tracks of a white-footed mouse. Note how
the long tail has left a print in the snow. As
this mouse does not hibernate, its tracks are
often seen on snow
Nature Photography around the Year, Percy A. Morris,
-© D. Appleton-Century Co., Inc.
A meadow mouse
child has become thoroughly interested in
it and its life is always bad.
SUGGESTED READING — The Museum
Comes to Life, by Maribelle Cormack
and William P. Alexander; Winter,
by Dallas L. Sharp; also, readings on
page 214.
LESSON 55
THE HOUSE MOUSE
LEADING THOUGHT — The mouse is fit-
ted by color, form, agility, and habits to
thrive upon the food which it steals from
man, and to live in the midst of civilized
people.
METHOD — A mouse cage can be easily
made of wire window-screen tacked upon
a wooden frame. I have even used aquar-
ium jars with wire screen covers; by plac-
ing one jar upon another, opening to
opening, and then laying them horizontal,
the mouse can be transferred to a fresh
cage without trouble, and thus the
mousy odor can be obviated while the
little creature is being studied. A little
water in a wide-necked bottle can be low-
ered into this glass house by a string, and
the food can be given in like manner.
Stripped paper should be put into the jar
for the comfort of the prisoner; a stiff
string hanging down from the middle of
the cage will afford him a chance to show
his feats as an acrobat.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Why is the color of
the mouse of special benefit to it? Do
you think it protects it from the sight of
228
ANIMALS
Robert T. Hatt
A tin-can trap for catching small rodents
alive. To a choke trap is wired a tin can with
a piece slightly larger than the bait treadle of
the trap cut out. To the choke wire of the
trap is fastened a square of coarse wire mesh
its enemies? Can you see a mouse easily
as it runs across the room? What is the
nature of the fur of a mouse?
2. How long is a mouse's tail as com-
pared with its body? What is the cover-
ing of the tail? Of what use to the mouse
is this long, ridged tail? Watch the mouse
carefully and discover, if you can, the use
of the tail in climbing.
3. Is the mouse a good jumper? Are
the hind legs long and strong when com-
pared with the front legs? How high do
you think a mouse can jump? Do you
think it uses its tail as an aid in jumping?
How much of the legs are covered with
hair? Compare the front and hind feet.
What sort of claws have they? How does
the mouse use its feet when climbing the
string? How can it climb up the side of
a wall?
4. Describe the eyes. Do you think the
mouse can see very well? Does it wink?
What is the shape of the ears? Do you
think it can hear well? Can it move its
ears forward or backward?
5. What is the shape of the snout? Of
what advantage is this? Note the whiskers.
What is their use? Describe the mouth.
Do you know how the teeth are arranged?
For what other purpose than to bite food
does the mouse use its teeth? What other
animals have their teeth arranged like
those of the mouse? What food does the
house mouse live upon? How does it
get it?
6. How does the mouse act when it is
reaching up to examine something? How
does it hold its front feet? Describe how
the mouse washes its face; its back; its feet.
7. Where does the house mouse build
its nest? Of what material? How do the
baby mice look? Can they see when they
are first born?
8. House mice are great travelers. Can
you tell how they manage to get from
place to place? Write a story telling all
you know of their habits.
9. How many kinds of mice do you
know? Does the house mouse ever live
in the field? What do you know of the
habits of the white-footed mouse? Of the
meadow mice? Of the jumping mice?
American Humane Society
A woodchuck caught in a humane trap. If
such traps are visited frequently, animals
caught in them do not suffer such agonies as
in ordinary steel traps. Information about
various types of humane traps can be secured
from the American Humane Society, Albany,
N.Y.
MAMMALS
THE WOODCHUCK
He who knows the ways of the wood-
chuck can readily guess where it is likely
to be found; it loves meadows and pastures
where grass or clover lushly grows. It is
also fond of garden truck and has a special
delectation for melons. The burrow is
likely to be situated near a fence or stone
heap, which gives easy access to the
chosen food. The woodchuck makes its
burrow by digging the earth loose with its
front feet, and pushing it backward and
out of the entrance with the hind feet.
This method leaves the soil in a heap near
the entrance, from which paths radiate
into the grass in all directions. If one un-
dertakes to dig out a woodchuck, one
needs to be not only a husky individual,
but something of an engineer; the direc-
tion of the burrow extends downward for
a little way, and then rises at an easy angle,
so that the inmate may be in no danger
of flood. The nest is merely an enlarge-
ment of the burrow, lined with soft grass
which the woodchucks bring in in their
mouths. During the early part of the sea-
son, the father and mother and the litter
of young may inhabit the same burrow,
although there are likely to be at least two
separate nests. There is usually more than
one back door to the woodchuck's dwell-
ing, through which it may escape if
pressed too closely by enemies; these back
doors differ from the entrance in that
they are usually hidden and have no earth
heaped near them.
The woodchuck usually feeds in the
morning and again in the evening, and is
likely to spend the middle of the day rest-
ing. It often goes some distance from its
burrow to feed, and at short intervals lifts
The woodchuck is at home in grassy meadows
2JO
ANIMALS
itself upon its hind feet to see if the coast
is clear; if assailed, it will seek to escape
by running to its burrow; and when run-
ning, it has a peculiar gait well described
as " pouring itself along/' If it reaches its
burrow, it at once begins to dig deeply and
throw the earth out behind it, thus mak-
ing a wall to keep out the enemy. When
cornered, the woodchuck is a courageous
and fierce fighter; its sharp incisors prove
a powerful weapon and it will often whip
a dog much larger than itself. Every boy
knows how to find whether the wood-
W. J. Hamilton, Jr.
. . amon, r.
These young woodchucks are as tame as
kittens
chuck is in its den or not, by rolling a
stone into the burrow, and listening; if
the animal is at home, the sound of its
digging apprises the listener of the fact,
In earlier times, the ground hogs were
much preyed upon by wolves, wildcats,
and foxes; now only the fox remains and
he is fast disappearing, so that at present
the farmer and his dog are about the only
enemies this burrower has, to contend
with. In recent years it has been con-
sidered a game animal and furnishes much
sport for the rifleman. It is an animal of
resources and will climb a tree if attacked
by a dog; it will also climb trees for fruit,
such as wild cherries or peaches. During
the late summer, it is the ground hog's
business to feed very constantly and be-
come very fat. About the first of October,
it retires to its den and sleeps until the
end of February or early March, in the
eastern United States. During this dor-
mant state, the beating of its heart is so
faint as to be scarcely perceptible, and very
little nourishment is required to keep it
alive; this nourishment is supplied by the
fat stored in its body, which it uses up by
spring, when it comes out of its burrow
looking gaunt and lean. The old saying
that the ground hog comes out on Candle-
mas Day, and if it sees its shadow, goes
back to sleep for six weeks more, may
savor of meteorological truth, but it is cer-
tainly not true of the ground hog.
The full-grown woodchuck ordinarily
measures about two feet in length. Its
color is grizzly or brownish, sometimes
blackish in places; the under parts are red-
dish and the feet black. The fur is rather
coarse, thick, and brown, with longer hairs
which are grayish. The skin is very thick
and tough and seems to fit loosely, a condi-
tion which gives the peculiar " pouring
along " appearance when it is running.
The hind legs and feet are longer than
those in front. Both pairs of feet are fitted
for digging, the front ones being used for
loosening the earth and the hind pair
for kicking it out of the burrow.
The woodchuck's ears are roundish and
not prominent; the sense of hearing is
acute. The teeth consist of two large white
incisors at the front of each jaw, then a
bare space, and then four grinders on each
side, above and below; the incisors are
used for biting food and also for fighting.
The eyes are full and bright. The tail is
short and brushy, and it, with the hind
legs, forms a tripod which supports the
animal as it sits with its forefeet lifted.
When feeding, the woodchuck often
makes a contented grunting noise; when
attacked and fighting, it growls; it also
can whistle. I had a woodchuck acquaint-
ance once which always gave a high, shrill,
almost birdlike whistle when I came in
view. There are plenty of statements in
books that woodchucks are fond of music,
and Mr. Ingersoll states that at Wellesley
College a woodchuck on the chapel lawn
was wont to join the morning song exer-
cises with a " clear soprano/7 The young
woodchucks are born from late March to
mid May, and the litter usually numbers
four or five. In June the " chucklings "
may be seen following the mother in the
MAMMALS
231
field with much babyish grunting. If cap- direction do the underground galleries
tured at this period, they make very in-
teresting pets. By July the young wood-
chucks leave the home burrow and start
burrows of their own.
SUGGESTED READING — Bozo, the Wood-
chuck, by Dorothy L. Brown and Mar-
guerite Butterfield; Holiday Meadow, by
Edith M. Patch; Mother Nature Series,
by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell,
Book 2, By the Roadside; The Museum
Comes to Life, by Maribelle Cormack
and William P. Alexander; The Pet Book,
by Anna B. Comstock; also, readings on
page 214.
LESSON 56
THE WOODCHUCK OR GROUND HOG
LEADING THOUGHT — The woodchuck
has thriven with civilization, notwith-
standing the farmer's dog, gun, traps, and
poison. It makes its nest in a burrow in
the earth and lives upon vegetation; it
hibernates in winter.
METHOD — Within convenient distance
for observation by the pupils of every
country schoolhouse and of most village
schoolhouses, may be found a woodchuck
and its dwelling. The pupils should be
given the outline for observations which
should be made individually through
watching the woodchuck for weeks or
months.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Where is the wood-
chuck found? On what does it live? At
what time of day does it feed? How does
it act when startled?
2. Is the woodchuck a good fighter?
With what weapons does it fight? What
are its enemies? How does it escape its
enemies when in or out of its burrow?
How does it look when running?
3. What noises does the woodchuck
make? Play a mouth organ near the wood-
chuck's burrow and note if it likes music.
4. How does the woodchuck make its
burrow? Where is it likely to be situated?
Where is the earth placed which is taken
from the burrow? How does the wood-
chuck bring it out? How is the burrow
made so that the woodchuck is not
drowned in case of heavy rains? In what
go? Where is the nest placed in relation
to the galleries? Of what is the nest made?
How is the bedding carried in? Of what
special use is the nest?
5. Do you find paths leading to the
entrances of the burrow? If so? describe
them. How can you tell whether a wood-
chuck is at home or not if you do not see
it enter? Where is the woodchuck likely
to station itself when it sits up to look
for intruders?
6. How many woodchucks inhabit the
same burrow? Are there likely to be one
or more back doors to the burrow? What
for? How do the back doors differ from
the front doors?
7. How long is the longest wroodchuck
that you have ever seen? What is the
woodchucFs color? Is its fur long or short?
Coarse or fine? Thick or sparse? Is the
skin thick or thin? Does it seem loose or
close fitting?
8. Compare the front and hind feet
and describe the difference in size and
shape. Are either or both slightly webbed?
Explain how both front and hind feet and
legs are adapted by their shape to help
the woodchuck. Is the tail long or short?
How does it assist the animal in sitting up?
9. What is the shape of the wood-
chuck's ear? Can it hear well? Of what
use are the long incisors? Describe the
eyes.
10. How does the woodchuck prepare
for winter? Where and how does it
pass the winter? Did you ever know a
woodchuck to come out on Candlemas
Day to look for its shadow?
11. When does the woodchuck appear
in the spring? Compare its general ap-
pearance in the fall and in the spring and
explain the reason for the difference.
12. When are the young woodchucks
born? What do you know of the way the
mother woodchuck cares for her young?
As I turned round the corner of Hub-
bard's Grove, saw a woodchuck, the first
of the season, in the middle of the field
six or seven rods from the fence which
bounds the wood, and twenty rods distant.
ANIMALS
I ran along the fence and cut him off, or
rather overtook him, though he started at
the same time. When I was only a rod and
a half off, he stopped, and I did the same;
then he ran again, and I ran up within
three feet of him, when he stopped again,
the fence being between us. I squatted
down and surveyed him at my leisure.
His eyes were dull black and rather in-
obvious, with a faint chestnut iris, with
but little expression and that more of resig-
nation than of anger. The general aspect
was a coarse grayish brown, a sort of grisel.
A lighter brown next the skin, then black
or very dark brown and tipped with whit-
ish rather loosely. The head between a
squirrel and a bear, flat on the top and
dark brown, and darker still or black on
the tip of the nose. The whiskers black,
two inches long. The ears very small and
roundish, set far back and nearly buried
in the fur. Black feet, with long and slen-
der claws for digging. It appeared to
tremble, or perchance shivered with cold.
When I moved, it gritted its teeth quite
loud, sometimes striking the under jaw
against the other chatteringly, sometimes
grinding one /aw on the other, yet as if
more from instinct than anger. Which-
ever way I turned, that way it headed. I
took a twig a foot long and touched its
snout, at which it started forward and bit
the stick, lessening the distance between us
to two feet, and still it held all the ground
it gained. I played with it tenderly awhile
with the stick, trying to open its gritting
jaws. Ever its long incisors, two above and
two below, were presented. But I thought
it would go to sleep if I stayed long
enough. It did not sit upright as some-
times, but standing on its fore feet with
its head down, i. e., half sitting, half stand-
ing. We sat looking at one another about
half an hour, till we began to feel mes-
meric influences. When I was tired, I
moved away, wishing to see him run, but
I could not start him. He would not stir
as long as I was looking at him or could
see him. I walked around him; he turned
as fast and fronted me still. I sat down by
his side within a foot. I talked to him quasi
forest lingo, baby-talk, at any rate in a con-
ciliatory tone, and thought that I had
some influence on him. He gritted his
teeth less. I chewed checkerberry leaves
and presented them to his nose at last
without a grit; though I saw that by so
much gritting of the teeth he had worn
them rapidly and they were covered with
a fine white powder, which, if you meas-
ured it thus, would have made his anger
terrible. He did not mind any noise I
might make. With a little stick I lifted
one of his paws to examine it, and held
it up at pleasure. I turned him over to see
what color he was beneath (darker or
most purely brown), though he turned
himself back again sooner than I could
have wished. His tail was also brown,
though not very dark, rat-tail like, with
loose hairs standing out on all sides like
a caterpillar brush. He had a rather mild
look. I spoke kindly to him. I reached
checkerberry leaves to his mouth. I
stretched my hands over him, though
he turned up his head and still gritted a
little. I laid my hand on him, but im-
mediately took it off again, instinct not
being wholly overcome. If I had had a
few fresh bean leaves, thus in advance of
the season, I am sure I should have tamed
him completely. It was a frizzly tail. His
is a humble, terrestrial color like the par-
tridge's, well concealed where dead wiry
grass rises above darker brown or chestnut
dead leaves — a modest color. If I had had
some food, I should have ended with
stroking him at my leisure. Could easily
have wrapped him in my handkerchief.
He was not fat nor particularly lean. I
finally had to leave him without seeing
him move from the place. A large, clumsy,
burrowing squirrel. Arctomys, bear-mouse.
I respect him as one of the natives. He
lies there, by his color and habits so nat-
uralized amid the dry leaves, the withered
grass, and the bushes. A sound nap, too,
he has enjoyed in his native fields, the past
winter. I think I might learn some wis-
dom of him. His ancestors have lived here
longer than mine. He is more thoroughly
acclimated and naturalized than I. Bean
leaves the red man raised for him, but he
can do without them.
— THOREAU'S JOURNAL
MAMMALS
THE RED SQUIRREL OR CHICKAREE
Just a tawny glimmer, a dash of red and gray,
Was it a flitting shadow,, or a sunbeam gone astray/
It glances up a tree trunk, and a pair of bright eyes glow
Where a little spy in ambush is measuring his foe.
I hear a mocking chuckle, then wrathful, he grows bold
And stays his pressing business to scold and scold and scold.
We ought to yield admiring tribute to
those animals which have been able to
flourish in our midst despite man and his
gun, this weapon being the most cowardly
and unfair invention of the human mind.
The only time that man has been a fair
fighter in combating his four-footed
brethren was when he fought them with
a weapon which he wielded in his hand.
There is nothing in animal comprehen-
sion which can take into account a pro-
jectile, and much less a shot from a gun;
but though it does not understand, it ex-
periences a deathly fear at the noise. It
is pathetic to note the hush in a forest
that follows the sound of a gun; every song,
every voice, every movement is stilled and
every little heart filled with nameless ter-
ror. How any man or boy can feel manly
when, with this scientific instrument of
death in his hands, he takes the life of
a little squirrel, bird, or rabbit, is beyond
my comprehension. In pioneer days when
it was a fight for existence, man against
the wilderness, the matter was quite dif-
ferent; but now it seems to me that any-
one who hunts what few wild creatures
we have left, and which are in nowise in-
jurious, is, whatever he may think of him-
self, no believer in fair play.
Within my own memory, the beautiful
black squirrel was as common in our
woods as was his red cousin; the shotgun
has exterminated this splendid species lo-
cally. Well may we rejoice that the red
squirrel has, through its lesser size and
greater cunning, escaped a like fate; and
that, pugnacious and companionable
and shy, it lives in our midst and climbs
our very roofs to sit there and scold us for
coming within its range of vision. It has
succeeded not only in living despite man,
but because of man, for it rifles our grain
bins and corn cribs and waxes opulent by
levying tribute upon our stores.
Thoreau describes most graphically the
movements of this squirrel. He says: " All
day long the red squirrels came and went.
One would approach at first warily, warily,
Dorothy M. Compton
Red squirrel at feeding log
through the shrub-oaks, running over the
snow crust by fits and starts and like a
leaf blown by the wind, now a few paces
this way, with wonderful speed and waste
of energy, making inconceivable haste
with his " trotters/7 as if it were for a wager,
and now as many paces that way, but
never getting on more than half a rod at
a time; and then suddenly pausing with
a ludicrous expression and a gratuitous
somersault, as if all the eyes of the uni-
verse were fixed on him . . . and then
suddenly, before you could say " Jack
Robinson " he would be in the top of a
ANIMALS
A red squirrel on his vine bridge
young pitch pine, winding up his clock,
and chiding all imaginary spectators, so-
liloquizing and talking to all the universe
at the same time/'
It is surely one of the most comical of
sights to see a squirrel stop running and,
take observations; he lifts himself on his
haunches, and with body bent forward,
presses his little paws against his breast
as if to say, " Be still, O my beating
heart! " which is all pure affectation be-
cause he knows he can scurry away in per-
fect safety. He is likely to take refuge on
the far side of a tree, peeping out from
this side and that, and whisking back
like a flash as he catches our eye; we
might never know he was there except
that, as Riley puts it, " he lets his own
tail tell on him/7 When climbing up or
down a tree, he goes head first and spreads
his legs apart to clasp as much of the
trunk as possible; meanwhile his sharp lit-
tle claws cling securely to the bark. He can
climb out on the smallest twigs quite as
well, when he needs to clo so, in passing
from tree to tree or when gathering
acorns.
A squirrel always establishes certain
roads to and from his abiding place and
almost invariably follows them. Such a
path may be entirely in the tree tops, with
air bridges from a certain branch of one
tree to a certain branch of another, or it
may be partially on the ground between
trees. I have made notes of these paths in
the vicinity of my own home, and have
noted that if a squirrel leaves them for
exploring, he goes warily; while, when fol-
lowing them, he is quite reckless in his
haste. When making a jump from tree
to tree, he flattens himself as widely as
possible and his tail is held somewhat
curved, but on a level with the body, as
if its wide brush helped to buoy him up
and perhaps to steer him also.
During the winter the chickaree is
brightly colored and is a conspicuous ob-
ject; his back is bright russet, almost red,
and along his sides, where the red meets
the grayish white of the underside, there
is a dark line which is very ornamental.
With the corning of summer, however, his
coat becomes quite dingy. In November
he moults, and his bright color returns.
When dashing up a tree trunk, his color
is never very striking but looks like the
glimmer of sunlight; this has probably
saved many of his kind from the gunner,
whose eyes, being at the front of his head,
cannot compare in efficiency with those
of the squirrel, which, large and full and
alert, are placed at the sides of the head
so as to see equally well in all directions.
The squirrel's legs are short because he
is essentially a climber rather than a run-
ner; the hips are very strong, which in-
sures his power as a jumper, and his leaps
are truly remarkable. A squirrel uses his
front paws for hands in a most human
way; with them he washes his face and
holds his food up to his mouth while
eating, and it is interesting to note the skill
of his claws when used as fingers. The track
he makes in the snow is quite character-
istic. The tracks are paired and those of
the large five-toed hind feet are always in
front.
Squirrel tracks
MAMMALS
The squirrel has two pairs of gnawing
teeth which are very long and strong, as
in all rodents, and he needs to keep busy
gnawing hard things with them, or they
will grow so long that he cannot use them
at all and will starve to death. He is very
clever about opening nuts so as to get all
the meats. He often opens a hickory nut
with two holes which tap the places of
the nut meats squarely; with walnuts
or butternuts, which have much harder
shells, he makes four small holes, one op-
posite each quarter of the kernel. He has
no cheek pouches like a chipmunk but
he can carry corn and other grain. He
often fills his mouth so full that his cheeks
bulge out like those of a boy eating pop-
corn; but anything as large as a nut he
carries in his teeth. His food is far more
varied than many suppose and he will
eat almost anything eatable; he is a little
pirate and enjoys stealing from others with
keenest zest. In spring, he eats leaf buds
and hunts our orchards for apple seeds.
In winter, he feeds on nuts, buds, and
cones; it is marvelous how he will take a
cone apart, tearing of! the scales and leav-
ing them in a heap while searching for
seeds; he is especially fond of the seeds
of Norway spruce and hemlock. Of course,
he is fond of nuts of all kinds and will
cut the chestnut burs from the tree before
they are ripe, so that he may get ahead of
the other harvesters. He stores his food
for winter in all sorts of odd places and
often forgets where he puts it. We often
A. A. Allen
A gray squirrel with food in its paws
Dwight E. Sollberger
Flying squirrel just leaving home
find his winter stores untouched the next
summer. He also likes birds' eggs and nest-
lings, and if it were not for the chastise-
ment he gets from the parent robins,
he would work much damage in this
way.
The red squirrels use a great variety of
places for nests. In different localities vari-
ous types of nests are constructed; some
individuals prefer hollow trees, some build
nests in clumps of vines, such as wild
grape vines, and still others make their
homes in the ground under or about
stumps. During the winter, the red squir-
rel does not remain at home except in
the coldest weather, when he lies cozily
with his tail wrapped around him like a
fur neck-piece to keep him warm. He is
too full of interest in the world to lie
quietly long, but comes out, hunts up
some of his stores, and finds life worth
while despite the cold. One squirrel
adopted a birdhouse in one of our trees,
and he or his kin have lived there for
years; in winter, he takes his share of the
suet put on the trees for birds, and be-
cause of his greediness we have been com-
pelled to use picture wire for tying on
the suet.
The young are born in a well-protected
nest. There are four to six in a litter and
they usually appear in April. If it is neces-
ANIMALS
sary to move the young the mother grasps
the babies by the loose skin of their un-
derparts and carries them to safety.
The squirrel has several ways of ex-
pressing his emotions; one is by various
curves in his long, beautiful bushy tail.
If the creatures of the wood had a stage,
the squirrel would be their chief actor.
Surprise, incredulousness, indignation,
fear, anger, and joy are all perfectly ex-
pressed by tail gestures and also by voice.
As a vocalist he excels; he chatters with
curiosity, " chips " with surprise, scolds
by giving a guttural trill, finishing with a
falsetto squeal. He is the only singer I
know who can carry two parts at a time.
Notice him sometimes in the top of a
hickory or chestnut tree when nuts are
ripe, and you will hear him singing a
duet all by himself, a high shrill chatter
with a chuckling accompaniment. Long
may he abide with us as an uninvited
guest at our cribs! For, though he be a
freebooter and conscienceless, yet our
world would lack its highest example of
incarnate grace and activity if he were
not in it.
SUGGESTED READING — Bannertail, the
Story of a Gray Squirrel, by Ernest
Thompson Seton; Holiday Hill, by Edith
M. Patch; Mother Nature Series, by Fan-
nie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell, Book
i, Baby Animals, Book 2, By the Road-
side; The Museum Comes to Life, by
Maribelle Corrnack and William P. Alex-
ander; Our Backdoor Neighbors, by Frank
C. Pellett; The Pet Book, by Anna B.
Comstock; also, reading on page 214.
LESSON 57
THE RED SQUIRREL OR CHICKAREE
LEADING THOUGHT — The red squirrel
by its agility and cleverness has lived on,
despite its worst enemy — man. By form
and color and activity it is fitted to elude
the hunter.
METHOD — If a pet squirrel in a cage
can be procured for observation at the
school, the observations on the form and
habits of the animal can be best studied
thus; but a squirrel in a cage is an anomaly
and it is far better to stimulate the pupils
to observe the squirrels out of doors. Give
the following questions, a few at a time,
and ask the pupils to report the answers
to the entire class. Much should be done
with the supplementary reading, as there
are many interesting squirrel stories illus-
trating its habits.
OBSERVATIONS — i. Where have you
seen a squirrel? Does the squirrel trot
along or leap when running on the
ground? Does it run straight ahead or
stop at intervals for observation? How
does it look? How does it act when look-
ing to see if the " coast is clear "?
2. When climbing a tree, does it go
straight up, or move around the trunk?
How does it hide itself behind a tree
trunk and observe the passer-by? Describe
how it manages to climb a tree. Does it
go down the tree head first? Is it able to
climb out on the smallest branches? Of
what advantage is this to the squirrel?
3. Look closely and see if a squirrel fol-
lows the same route always when pass-
ing from one point to another. How
does it pass from tree to tree? How does
it act when preparing to jump? How
does it hold its legs and tail when in
the air during a jump from branch to
branch?
4. Describe the colors of the red squir-
rel above and below. Is there a dark stripe
along its side; if so, what color? How does
the color of the squirrel protect it from
its enemies? Is its color brighter in sum-
mer or in winter?
5. How are the squirrel's eyes placed?
Do you think it can see behind as well as
in front all the time? Are its eyes bright
and alert, or soft and tender?
6. Are its legs long or short? Are its
hind legs stronger and longer than the
front legs? Why? Why does it not need
long legs? Do its paws have claws? How
does it use its paws when eating and in
making its toilet?
7. Describe the squirrel's tail. Is it as
long as the body? Is it used to express
emotion? Of what use is it when the squir-
rel is jumping? Of what use is it in the
winter in the nest?
MAMMALS
8. What is the food of the squirrel dur-
ing the autumn? Winter? Spring? Sum-
mer? Where does it store food for the
winter? Does it steal food laid up by jays,
chipmunks, mice, or other squirrels? How
does it carry nuts? Has it cheek-pouches
like the chipmunk for carrying food? Does
it stay in its nest all winter living on stored
food like a chipmunk?
9. Where does the red squirrel make
its home? Of what is it made and where
built? In what sort of nest are the young
born and reared? At what time of the
year are the young born? How does the
237
mother squirrel carry her little ones if she
wishes to move them?
10. How much of squirrel language can
you understand? How does it express sur-
prise, excitement, anger, or joy during the
nut harvest? Note how many different
sounds it makes and try to discover what
they mean,
11. Describe or sketch the tracks made
by the squirrel in the snow.
12. How does the squirrel get at the
meats of the hickory nut and the walnut?
How are its teeth arranged to gnaw holes
in such hard substances as shells?
FURRY
Furry was a baby red squirrel. One day
in May his mother was moving him from
one tree to another. He was clinging with
his little arms around her neck and his
body clasped tightly against her breast
when something frightened her, and in
her sudden movement she dropped her
heavy baby in the grass. Thus, I inherited
him and entered upon the rather onerous
duties of caring for a baby of whose needs
I knew little; but I knew that every well-
cared-for baby should have a book detail-
ing all that happens to it, and therefore
I made a book for Furry, writing in it each
day the things he did. If the children who
have pets keep similar books, they will
find them most interesting reading after-
ward, and they will surely enjoy the writ-
ing very much.
EXTRACTS FROM FURRY' s NOTEBOOK
May 18, 1902— -The baby squirrel is
just large enough to cuddle in one hand.
He cuddles all right when once he is cap-
tured; but he is a terrible fighter, and when
I attempt to take him in my hand, he
scratches and bites and growls so that
I have been obliged to name him Fury.
I told him, however, if he improved in
temper I would change his name to Furry.
May 19 — Fury greets me, when I open
his box, with the most awe-inspiring little
growls, which he calculates will make me
turn pale with fear. He has not cut his
teeth yet, so he cannot bite very severely,
but that isn't his fault, for he 'tries hard
enough. The Naturalist said cold milk
would kill him, so I warmed the milk and
put it in a teaspoon and placed it in front
of his nose; he batted the spoon with
both forepaws and tried to bite it, and
thus got a taste of the milk, which he
drank eagerly, lapping it up like a kitten.
When I hold him in one hand and cover
him with the other, he turns contented
little somersaults over and over.
May 20 — Fury bit me only once to-
day, when I took him out to feed him.
He is cutting his teeth on my devoted
fingers. I tried giving him grape-nuts
soaked in milk, but he spat it out in dis-
gust. Evidently he does not believe he
needs a food for brain and nerve. He al-
ways washes his face as soon as he is
through eating.
May 21 — Fury lies curled up under his
blanket all day. Evidently good little
squirrels stay quietly in the nest, when
the mother is not at home to give them
permission to run around. When Fury
sleeps, he rolls himself up in a little ball
with his tail wrapped closely around him.
The squirrel's tail is his " furs," which he
wraps around him to keep his back warm
when he sleeps in winter.
May 23 — Every time I meet Uncle
238
ANIMALS
John he asks, " Is his name Fury or Furry
now? " Uncle John is much interested in
the good behavior of even little squirrels.
As Fury has not bitten me hard for two
days, I think I will call him Furry after
this. He ate some bread soaked in milk
to-day, holding it in his hands in real squir-
rel fashion. I let him run around the room
and he liked it.
May 25 — Furry got away from me this
morning and I did not find him for an
hour. Then I discovered him in a paste-
board box of drawing paper with the cover
on. How did he squeeze through?
May 26 — He holds the bowl of the
spoon with both front paws while he
drinks the milk. When I try to draw the
spoon away to fill it again after he has
emptied it, he objects and hangs on to
it with all his little might, and scolds as
hard as ever he can. He is such a funny,
unreasonable baby.
May 28 — Tonight I gave Furry a wal-
nut meat. As soon as he smelled it he be-
came greatly excited; he grasped the meat
in his hands and ran off and hid under
my elbow, growling like a kitten with its
first mouse.
May 30 — Since he tasted nuts he has
lost interest in milk. The nut meats are
too hard for his new teeth7 so I mash them
and soak them in water and now he eats
them like a little piggy-wig with no man-
ners at all. He loves to have me stroke
his back while he is eating. He uses his
thumbs and fingers in such a human way
that I always call his front paws hands.
When his piece of nut is very small he
holds it in one hand and clasps the other
hand behind the one which holds the
dainty morsel, so as to keep it safe.
May 31 -— When he is sleepy he scolds
if I disturb him and turning over on his
back bats my hand with all of his soft
little paws and pretends that he is going
to bite.
June 4 — Furry ranges around the room
now to please himself. He is a little mis-
chief; he tips over his cup of milk and
has commenced gnawing off the wall-
paper behind the bookshelf to make him
a nest. The paper is green and will prob-
ably make him sorry.
June 5 -— This morning Furry was hid-
den in a roll of paper. I put my hand over
one end of the roll and then reached in
with the other hand to get him; but he
got me instead, because he ran up my
sleeve and was much more contented to
be there than I was to have him. I was
glad enough when he left his hiding place
and climbed to the top shelf of the book-
case, far beyond my reach.
June 6 — 1 have not seen Furry for
twenty-four hours, but he is here surely
enough. Last night he tipped over the
ink bottles and scattered nut shells over
the floor. He prefers pecans to any other
nuts.
June 7 — I caught Furry today and he
bit my finger so that it bled. But after-
wards, he cuddled in my hand for a long
time, and then climbed my shoulder and
went hunting around in my hair and
wanted to stay there and make a nest.
When I took him away, he pulled out his
two hands full of my devoted tresses. I'll
not employ him as a hairdresser.
June 9 — Furry sleeps nights in the top
drawer of my desk; he crawls in from be-
hind. When I pull out the drawer he pops
out and scares me nearly out of my wits;
but he keeps his wits about him and gets
away before I can catch him.
June 20 — - 1 keep the window open so
Furry can run out and in and learn to
take care of himself out-of-doors.
Furry soon learned to take care of him-
self, though he often returned for nuts,
which I kept for him in a bowl. He does
not come very near me out-of-doors, but
he often speaks to me in a friendly manner
from a certain pitch pine tree near the
house.
There are many blank leaves in Furry's
notebook. I wish that he could have writ-
ten on these of the things that he thought
about me and my performances. It would
certainly have been the most interesting
book in the world concerning squirrels.
MAMMALS
239
THE CHIPMUNK
While the chipmunk is a good runner
and jumper, it is not so able a climber as
is the red squirrel, and it naturally stays
nearer the ground. One windy day I was
struck by the peculiar attitude of what
I first thought was a red squirrel gather-
ing green acorns from a chestnut oak in
front of my window. A second glance
showed me that it was a chipmunk lying
close to the branch, hanging on for " dear
life " and with an attitude of extreme cau-
tion, quite foreign to the red squirrel in
a similar situation. He would creep out,
seize an acorn in his teeth, creep back
to a larger limb, take off the shell, and
with his little paws stuff the kernel into
his cheek-pouches; he took hold of one
side of his mouth with one hand to
stretch it out, as if opening a bag, and
stuffed the acorn in with the other. I do
not know whether this process was neces-
sary or not at the beginning, for his cheeks
were distended when I first saw him; and
he kept on stuffing them until he looked
as if he had a hopeless case of mumps.
Then with obvious care he descended the
Leonard K. Beyer
This chipmunk has his cheek-pouches well
stuffed
tree and retreated to his den in the side-
hill, the door of which I had already dis-
covered, although it was well hidden by
a bunch of orchard grass.
Chipmunks are more easily tamed than
red squirrels and soon learn that pockets
may contain nuts and other things good
to eat. The first tame chipmunk of my
" Chipsie," a chipmunk of the Sierras
acquaintance belonged to a species found
in the California mountains. He was a
beautiful little creature and loved to play
about his mistress' room; she, being a
naturalist as well as a poet, was able to un-
derstand her little companion, and the re-
lations between them were full of mutual
confidence. He was fond of English wal-
nuts and would always hide away all that
were placed in a dish on the table. One
day his mistress, when taking off her hat
after returning from church, discovered
several of these nuts tucked safely in the
velvet bows; they were invisible from the
front but perfectly visible from the side.
Even yet, she wonders what the people
at church that day thought of her original
ideas in millinery; and she wonders still
more how "Chipsie" managed to get
into the hatbox, the cover of which was
always carefully closed.
The chipmunk is a good home builder
and carries off, presumably in its cheek-
pouches, all of the soil which it removes
in making its burrow. The burrow is usu-
ANIMALS
J
Dorothy M. Conipton
Peanuts are a favorite food oj tame chip-
munks
ally made in a dry hillside, the passage-
way just large enough for its own body,
widening to a nest which is well bedded
clown. There is usually a back door also,
so that in case of necessity the inmate
can escape. It retires to this nest in late
November and does not appear again
until March. In mild winters it may be
up and about on bright, sunny days. In
the nest it stores nuts and other grains
so that when it wakens, at long intervals,
it can take refreshment.
If you really wish to know whether you
see what you look at or not, test yourself
by trying to describe the length, position,
and number of the chipmunk's stripes.
These stripes, like those of the tiger in
the jungle, make the creature less con-
spicuous; when on the ground, where its
stripes fall in with the general shape and
color of the grass and underbrush, it is
quite invisible until it stirs. Its tail is not
so long nor nearly so bushy as that of the
squirrel; it does not need a tail to balance
and steer with in the tree tops; and since it
lives in the ground, a bushy tail would
soon be loaded with earth and would
be an incubus instead of a thing of beauty.
The chipmunk is not a vocalist like the
red squirrel, but he can cluck like a cuckoo
and chatter gayly or cogently; and he can
make himself into a little bunch with his
tail curved up his back, while he eats a
nut from both his hands. He is even
more amusing than the red squirrel in this
attitude, probably because lie is more in-
nocent and not so much of a poseur. His
food consists of all kinds of nuts, grain,
and fruit, but he does little or no damage,
Chipmunks sometimes cache their food
under stumps
ai'^' J^L^_^_
Dorothy M. Coinpton
Common chipmunk, often called ground
squirrel
as a rule. He does upon occasion rob the
flower garden of valued bulbs. He is
pretty and distinctly companionable, and
I can rejoice that I have had him and
his whole family as my near neighbors for
many years. I always feel especially proud
when he shows his confidence by scamper--
ing around our porch floor and peeping
in at our windows, as if taking a reciprocal
interest in us.
SUGGESTED READING — The Museum
Comes to Life, by Maribelle Cormack and
William P. Alexander; The Pet Boole, by
Anna B. Comstock; Tami, the Story of a
Chipmunk, by Bertha C. Cacly; also, read-
ings on page 214.
LESSON 58
THE CHIPMUNK
LEADING THOUGHT — The chipmunk
lives more on the ground than does the
squirrel; its colors are protective and it
has cheek-pouches in which it carries
food, and also soil when digging its bur-
row. It stores food for winter in its
den.
METHOD — The field notebook should
be the basis for this wrork. Give the pupils
an outline of observations to be made, and
ask for reports now and then. Meanwhile
stimulate interest in the little creatures by
reading aloud from some of the references
given.
OBSERVATIONS — i . Do you see the
chipmunk climbing around in trees like
the red squirrel? How high in a tree have
you ever seen a chipmunk?
2. What are the chipmunk's colors
above and below? How many stripes has
it? Where are they and what are their
colors? Do you think that these stripes
conceal the animal when among grasses
and bushes?
3. Compare the tails of the chipmunk
and the red squirrel. Which is the longer
MAMMALS 241
and bushier? Tell if you can the special
advantage to the chipmunk in having this
less bushy tail.
4. What does the chipmunk eat? How
does it earn- its food? How does it differ
in this respect from the red squirrel? Does
it store its food for winter use? How does
it prepare its nuts? How does it hold its
food while eating?
5. Where does the chipmunk make its
home? How does it carry away soil from
its burrow? How many entrances are
there? How is the den arranged inside?
Does it live in the same den the year
round? When does it retire to its den in
the fall? When does it come out in the
spring?
6. Does the chipmunk do any damage
to crops? What seeds does it distribute?
At what time do the little chipmunks ap-
pear in the spring?
7. Observe carefully the different tones
of the chipmunk and compare its chatter-
ing with that of the squirrel.
Verne Morton
A bat
THE LITTLE BROWN BAT
His small umbrella, quaintly halved,
Describing in the air an arc alike inscrutable,—
Elate philosopher/ — EMILY DICKINSON
Whoever first said " as blind as a bat/'
surely never looked a bat in the face, or
he would not have said it. The deep-set,
keen, observant eyes are quite in keeping
with the alert attitude of the erect, pointed
ears; while the pug nose and the wide-
open little pink bag of a mouth, set with
tiny, sharp teeth, give this anomalous little
242
ANIMALS
animal a deliciously impish look. Yet how
have those old artists belied the bat, who
fashioned their demons after his pattern,
ears, eyes, nose, mouth, wings, and all!
The superstitions which link the bat with
evil malign this bright, engaging little
creature. There are no other wings so
wonderful as the bat's; the thin mem-
_ j
Hung up for his daytime nap
brane is equipped with sensitive nerves
which inform the flier of the objects in
his path, so that he darts among the
branches of trees at terrific speed and
never touches a twig; a blinded bat was
once set free in a room, across which
threads were stretched, and he flew about
without ever touching one. After we have
tamed one of these little, silky flitter-mice
we soon get reconciled to his wings for
he proves the cunningest of pets; he soon
learns who feeds him, and is a constant
source of entertainment.
The flight of the bat consists of darting
hither and thither with incredible swift-
ness, and making sharp turns with no ap-
parent effort. Swifts and swallows cannot
compete with the bat in wing celerity and
agility; it is interesting to note that these
birds also catch insects on the wing for
food. He makes a collecting net of the
wing membrane stretched between the
hind legs and tail, doubling it up like an
apron on the unfortunate insects, and
then reaching down and gobbling them
up; and thus he is always doing good serv-
ice to us on summer evenings by swallow-
ing a multitude of insects.
The short fur of the bat is as soft as
silk, and covers the body but not the
wings; the plan of the wing is something
like that of the duck's foot; it consists of
a web stretched between very much elon-
gated fingers. If a boy's fingers were as long
in proportion as a bat's, they would meas-
ure four feet. Stretched between the long
fingers is a thin, rubbery membrane,
which extends back to the ankles and
thence back to the tip of the bony tail;
thus, the bat has a winged margin all
around his body. Since fingers make the
framework, it is the thumb that projects
from the front angle of the wing, in the
form of a very serviceable hook, resem-
bling that used by a one-armed man to
replace the lost member. These hooks the
bat uses in many ways. He drags himself
along the floor with their aid, or he
scratches the back of his head with them,
if occasion requires. He is essentially a
creature of the air and is not at all fitted
for walking; his knees bend backward in
an opposite direction from ours. This ren-
ders him unable to walk, and when at-
tempting to do so, he has the appearance
of " scrabbling " along on his feet and
elbows. When thus moving he keeps his
wings fluttering rapidly, as if feeling his
way in the dark, and his movements are
trembly. He uses his teeth to aid in climb-
ing.
The little brown bat's wings often meas-
ure nine inches from tip to tip, and yet
he folds them so that they scarcely show;
he does not fold them like a fan, but
rather like a pocket-knife. The hind legs
merely act as a support for the side wing,
and the little hip bones look pitifully
sharp. The membrane reaches only to the
MAMMALS
243
ankle; the tiny foot projecting from it is
armed with five wirelike toes, tipped with
sharp hooked claws. It is by these claws
that he hangs when resting during the
day, for he is upside-downy in his sleep-
ing habits, slumbering during the daytime
while hanging head downward, without
any inconvenience from a rush of blood
to the brain; when he is thus suspended,
the tail is folded down. Sometimes he
hangs by one hind foot and a front hook;
and he is a wee thing when all folded to-
gether and hung up, with his nose tucked
between his hooked thumbs, in a very
babyish fashion.
The bat is very particular about his
personal cleanliness. People who regard
the bat as a dirty creature might well look
to it that they be even half as fastidious
as he. He washes his face with the front
part of his wing, and then licks his wash-
cloth clean; he scratches the back of his
head with his hind foot and then licks the
foot; when hanging head down, he will
reach one hind foot down and scratch
behind his ear with an aplomb truly comi-
cal in such a mite; but it is most fun of
all to see him clean his wings; he seizes
the edges in his mouth and stretches and
licks the membrane until we are sure it
is made of silk elastic, for he pulls and
hauls it in a way truly amazing.
The bat has a voice which sounds like
the squeak of a toy wheelbarrow, and yet
it is expressive of emotions. He squeaks
in one tone when holding conversation
with other bats, and squeaks quite differ-
ently when seized by the enemy.
The mother bat feeds her little ones
from her breasts as a mouse does its young,
only she cradles them in her soft wings
while so doing; often she takes them with
her when she goes out for insects in the
evenings; they cling to her neck during
these exciting rides; but when she wishes
to work unencumbered, she hangs her
tiny youngsters on some twig and goes
back for them later. The little ones are
born in July and usually occur as twins.
During the winter, some bats hibernate
like woodchucks or chipmunks. They se-
lect for winter quarters some hollow tree
or cave or other protected place. They
go to sleep when the cold weather comes,
and do not awake until the insects are
flying; they then come forth in the eve-
nings, or perhaps early in the morning,
and do their best to rid the world of insect
nuisances. Others migrate to the south
with the advent of cold weather.
There are many senseless fears about
the bat; for instance, that he likes to get
tangled in a lady's tresses, a situation
which would frighten him far more than
the lady; or that he brings bedbugs into
the house when he enters on his quest
for insects, which is an ungrateful slander.
Some people believe that all bats are vam-
pires, and only await an opportunity to
suck blood from their victims. It is true
that in South America there are two spe-
cies which occasionally attack people who
are careless enough to sleep with their
toes uncovered, but feet thus injured seem
to recover speedily. These bats do little
damage to people, although they some-
times pester animals; and there are no
vampires in the United States. Our bats,
on the contrary, are innocent and bene-
ficial to man. There are a few species in
our country which have little, leaflike
growths on the end of the nose; these
growths serve the purpose of sensory
organs.
SUGGESTED READING — Mother Nature
Series, by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor
Troxell, Book 3, In Field and Forest; The
Museum Comes to Life, by Maribelle
Cormack and William P. Alexander; The
Pet Book, by Anna B. Comstock; also,
readings on page 214.
LESSON 59
THE BAT
LEADING THOUGHT — Although the
bat's wings are very different from those
of the bird, yet it is a rapid and agile
flier. It flies in the dusk and catches great
numbers of mosquitoes and other trouble-
some insects, upon which it feeds.
METHOD — This lesson should not be
given unless there is a live bat to illustrate
it; the little creature can be cared for com-
244
ANIMALS
fortably in a cage in the schoolroom, as
it will soon learn to take flies or bits of
raw meat when presented on the point
of a pencil or toothpick. Any bat will do
for this study, although the little brown
bat is the one on which my observations
were made.
OBSERVATIONS — i. At what time of
day do we see bats flying? Describe how
Charles E. Mohr
Little brown bats hibernating in a Pennsyl-
vania cave
the bat's flight differs from that of birds.
Why do bats dart about so rapidly?
2. Look at a captive bat and describe its
wings. Can you see what makes the frame-
work of the wings? Do you see the three
finger bones extending out into the
wings? How do the hind legs support the
wing? The tail? Is the wing membrane
covered with fur? Is it thick and leathery
or thin and silky and elastic? How does
the bat fold up its wings?
3. In what position does the bat rest?
Does it ever hang by its thumb hooks?
4. Can you see whether the knees of
the hind legs bend upward or downward?
How does the bat act when trying to walk
or crawl? How does it use its thumb hooks
in doing this?
5. What does the bat do daytimes?
Where does it stay during the day? Do
many bats congregate together in their
roosts?
6. Describe the bat's head, including
the ears, eyes, nose, and mouth. What is
its general expression? Do you think it
can see and hear well? How is its mouth
fitted for catching insects? Does it shut
its mouth while chewing or keep it open?
Do you think that bats can see by day-
light?
7. What noises does a bat make? How
does it act if you try to touch it? Can it
bite severely? Can you understand why
the Germans call it a flitter-mouse?
8. Do you know how the mother bat
cares for her young? How does she carry
them? At what time of year may we ex-
pect to find them?
9. When making its toilet, how does a
bat clean its wings? Its face? Its back? Its
feet? Do you know if it is very clean in
its habits?
10. How and where do the bats pass
the winter? How are they beneficial to us?
Are they ever harmful? What are some
superstitions about the bat?
Nature-study should not be unrelated
to the child's life and circumstances. It
stands for directness and naturalness. It
is astonishing when one comes to think
of it, how indirect and how remote from
the lives of pupils much of our education
has been. Geography still often begins
with the universe, and finally, perhaps,
comes down to some concrete and familiar
object or scene that the pupil can under-
stand. Arithmetic has to do with broker-
age and partnerships and partial payments
and other things that mean nothing to
the child. Botany begins with cells and
protoplasm and cryptogams. History deals
with political and military affairs, and only
rarely comes down to physical facts and
to those events that express the real lives
of the people; and yet political and social
affairs are only the results of expressions
of the way in which people live. Readers
MAMMALS
245
begin with mere literature or with stories
of scenes the child will never see. Of
course these statements are meant to be
only general, as illustrating what is even
yet a great fault in educational methods.
There are many exceptions, and these are
becoming commoner. Surely, the best edu-
cation is that which begins with the ma-
terials at hand. A child knows a stone
before it knows the earth.
— " THE NATURE-STUDY IDEA/'
L. H. BAILEY
THE SKUNK
Those who have had experience with
this animal surely are glad that it is small;
and the wonder always is that so little a
creature can make such a large impression
upon the atmosphere. A fully grown skunk
is about two feet long; its body is covered
with long, shining, rather coarse hair, and
the tail, which is carried like a flag in the
air, is very large and bushy. In color, the
fur is sometimes entirely black, but most
often has a white patch on the back of the
neck, with two stripes extending down
the back and along the sides to the tail;
the face, also, has a white stripe.
The skunk has a long head and a rather
pointed snout; its front legs are very much
shorter than its hind legs, which gives it
a very peculiar gait. Its forefeet are armed
with long, strong claws, with which it digs
its burrow, which is usually made in light
soil. It also often makes its home in some
crevice in rocks, or even takes possession of
an abandoned woodchuck's hole; or trust-
ing to its immunity from danger, makes its
home under the barn. In the fall it be-
comes very fat, and during the early part
of winter it hibernates within its den; it
comes out during the thaws of winter and
early spring.
The young skunks appear in May; they
are born in an enlarged portion of the
burrow, where a nice bed of grass and
leaves is made for them; the skunk is scru-
pulously neat about its own nest. The
young skunks are very active and inter-
esting to watch when playing together
like kittens.
The skunk belongs to the same family
as the mink and weasel, which also give
off a disagreeable odor when angry. The
fetid material which is the skunk's defense
is contained in two glands near the base
of the tail. These little glands are about
the size of marbles, and the quantity of
liquid forced from them in a discharge is
considerable and it will permeate the at-
mosphere with its odor for a distance
of half a mile down wind. Because this
discharge is so disagreeable to all other
creatures, the skunk's intelligence has not
become so highly developed as has that of
some animals. It has not been obliged to
rely upon its cunning to escape its ene-
mies, and has therefore never developed
Verne Morton
A skunk. Note the long, pointed head and the
bushy tail
either fear or cleverness. It marches abroad
without haste, confident that every crea-
ture which sees it will give it plenty of
room. It is a night prowler, although it is
not averse to a daytime promenade. The
white upon its fur gives warning at night
that here is an animal which had best be
left alone. This immunity from attack
makes the skunk careless in learning wis-
dom from experience; it never learns to
avoid a trap, or the dangers of a railway
or trolley track. It plods deliberately across
highways, leaving its protection to the
motorist.
246
The skunk's food consists largely of
fruits and berries, insects, mice, snakes,
frogs, and other small animals. It also
destroys the eggs and young of birds which
nest upon the ground. It uses its strong
forepaws in securing its prey. Dr. Mer-
riam, who made pets of young skunks
after removing their scent capsules, found
them very interesting. He says of one
which was named "Meph'': " We used
to walk through the woods to a large
ANIMALS
SUGGESTED READING — The Museum
Comes to Life, by Maribelle Cormack and
William P. Alexander; The Pet Book, by
Anna B. Comstock; also, readings on
page 214.
Doubleday, Page & Co.
Pet skunks
meadow that abounded in grasshoppers.
Here, Meph would fairly revel in his fa-
vorite food, and it was rich sport to watch
his manoeuvres. When a grasshopper
jumped, he jumped, and I have seen him
with as many as three in his mouth and
two under his forepaws at the same time."
The only injury which the skunk is
likely to do farmers is the raiding of hens'
nests or the beehives; this can be obviated
by properly housing the poultry and bees.
On the other hand, the skunk is of great
use in destroying injurious insects and
mice. Often when skunks burrow beneath
barns, they completely rid the place of
mice. Skunk fur is very valuable and is
sold, surprisingly, under its own name; it
is exported in great quantities to Europe.
The skunk takes short steps, and goes so
slowly that it makes a double track, the
imprints being very close together. The
foot makes a longer track than that of the
cat, as the skunk is plantigrade; that is,
it walks upon its palms and heels as well
as its toes.
LESSON 60
THE SKUNK
LEADING THOUGHT — The skunk has de-
pended so long upon protecting itself from
its enemies by its disagreeable odor that
it has become stupid and unadaptable,
and seems never to be able to learn to
keep off railroad tracks or highways. It is
a very beneficial animal to the farmer be-
cause its food consists so largely of injuri-
ous insects and rodents.
METHOD — The questions should be
given the pupils and they should answer
them from personal observations or in-
quiries.
OBSERVATIONS — i . How large is a
skunk? Describe its fur. Where does the
black and white occur in the fur? Of what
use is the white to the skunk? Is the fur
valuable? What is its commercial name?
2. What is the shape of the skunk's
head? The general shape of the body? The
tail? Are the front legs longer or shorter
than the hind legs? Describe the front
feet. For what are they used?
3. Where and how does the skunk make
its nest? Does it sleep like a wooclchuck
during the winter? What is its food? How
does it catch its prey? Does it hunt for
its food during the day or the night? Does
the skunk ever hurry? Is it afraid? How
does it protect itself from its enemies?
Do you think that the skunk's freedom
from fear has rendered the animal less
intelligent?
4. At what time do the skunk kittens
appear? Have you ever seen little skunks
playing? If so, describe their antics. How
is the nest made soft for the young ones?
5. How does the skunk benefit farmers?
Does it ever do them any injury? Do you
think that it does more good than harm?
6. Describe the skunk's track as fol-
lows: How many toes show in the track?
Does the palm or heel show? Are the tracks
MAMMALS
247
near together? Do they form a single or
a double line?
Few animals are so silent as the skunk.
Zoological works contain no information
as to its voice, and the essayists rarely
mention it except by implication. Mr.
Burroughs says: " The most silent creature
known to me, he makes no sound, so far as
I have observed, save a diffuse, impatient
noise, like that produced by beating your
hand with a whisk-broom, when the farm-
dog has discovered his retreat in the stone
fence." Rowland Robinson tells us that:
" The voiceless creature sometimes fright-
ens the belated farm-boy, whom he curi-
ously follows with a mysterious hollow
beating of his feet upon the ground/7
Thoreau, as has been mentioned, heard
one keep up a " fine grunting, like a little
pig or a squirrel "; but he seems to have
misunderstood altogether a singular loud
patting sound heard repeatedly on the
frozen ground under the wall, which he
also listened to, for he thought it " had to
do with getting its food, patting the earth
to get the insects or worms." Probably he
would have omitted this guess if he could
have edited his diary instead of leaving
that to be done after his death. The pat-
ting is evidently merely a nervous sign of
impatience or apprehension, similar to the
well-known stamping with the hind feet
indulged in by rabbits, in this case prob-
ably a menace like a doubling of the fists,
as the hind legs, with which they kick,
are their only weapons. The skunk, then,
is not voiceless, but its voice is weak and
querulous, and it is rarely if ever heard ex-
cept in the expression of anger.
— " WILD NEIGHBORS,"
ERNEST INGERSOLL
General Biological Supply House, Chicago
A raccoon. In the picture the heavy dark portion over the top of his head is caused by a
shadow — but he does have a black mask across his eyes
THE RACCOON
None other of our little brothers of the
forest has such a mischievous countenance
as the coon. The black patch across the
face and surrounding the eyes like large
goggles, and the black line extending from
the long, inquisitive nose directly up the
ANIMALS
Treed
forehead give the coon's face an anxious
expression; and the keenness of the big,
beady, black eyes and the alert, " sassy "
looking, broadly triangular ears, convince
one that the anxiety depicted in the face
is anxiety lest something that should not
be done be left undone; and I am sure
that anyone who has had experience with
pet coons will aver that their acts do not
belie their looks.
What country child, wandering by the
brook and watching its turbulence in early
spring, has not viewed with awe a foot-
print on the muddy banks looking as if
it were made by the foot of a very little
baby? The first one I ever saw I promptly
concluded was made by the foot of a brook
fairy. However, the coon is no fairy; it is
a rather heavy, logy animal and, like the
bear and skunk, is plantigrade, walking on
the entire foot instead of on the toes, like
a cat or dog. The hind foot is long, with
a well-marked heel, and five comparatively
short toes, giving it a remarkable resem-
blance to a human foot. The front foot
is smaller and looks like a wide, little hand,
with four long fingers and a rather short
thumb. The claws are strong and sharp.
The soles of the feet and the palms of the
hands look as if they were covered with
black kid, while the feet above and the
backs of the hands are covered with short
fur. Coon tracks are likely to be found dur-
ing the thawing days of winter, along some
stream or the borders of swamps, often
following the path made by cattle. The
full-length track is about two inches long;
as the coon puts the hind foot in the
track made by the front foot on the same
side, only the print of the hind feet is
left, showing plainly five toe prints and
the heel. The tracks may vary from one-
half inch to one foot or more apart de-
pending on how fast the animal is going;
when it runs it goes on its toes, but when
walking it sets the heel down; the tracks
are not in so straight a line as those made
by the cat. Sometimes it goes at a slow
jump, when the prints of the hind feet
are paired, and between and behind them
are the prints of the two front feet.
The coon is covered with long, rather
coarse hair, so long as almost to drag when
the animal is walking; it really has two
different kinds of hair, the long, coarse,
gray hair, blackened at the tips, covering
the fine, short, grayish or brownish under-
coat. The very handsome bushy tail is
ringed with black and gray.
The raccoon feeds on almost anything
eatable, except herbage. It has a special
predilection for corn in the milk stage
and, in attaining this sweet and tooth-
some luxury, it strips down the husks and
often breaks the plant, doing much dam-
age. It is also fond of poultry and often
raids hen houses; it also destroys birds'
nests and the young, thus doing harm to
the farmer by killing both domestic and
wild birds. It is especially fond of fish and
is an adept at sitting on the shore and
catching them with its hands; it likes tur-
tle eggs, crayfish, and snakes; it haunts the
bayous of the Gulf Coast for the oysters
which grow there; it is also a skillful frog
catcher. Although fond of animal diet,
it is also fond of fruit, especially of berries
and wild grapes. It usually chooses for a
home a hollow tree or a cavern in a ledge
near a stream, because of its liking for
water creatures.
Coons when in captivity have been
known to wash their meat before eating
it. I have watched a pet coon perform this
act; he would take a piece of meat in his
MAMMALS
249
hands, dump it into the pan of drinking
water and souse it up and down a few
times; then he would get into the pan with
his splay feet and roll the meat beneath
and between them, meanwhile looking
quite unconcernedly at his surroundings,
as if washing the meat were an act too me-
chanical to occupy his mind. After the
meat had been soaked until it was white
and flabby, he would take it in his hands
and hang onto it with a tight grip while he
pulled off pieces with his teeth; or some-
times he would hold it with his feet, and
use hands as well as teeth in tearing it
apart. The coon's teeth are very much
like those of the cat, having long, sharp
tushes or canines, and sharp, wedge-shaped
grinding teeth, which cut as well as grind.
After eating, the pet coon always washed
his feet by splashing them in the pan.
It is an amusing sight to watch a coon
arrange itself for a nap, on a branch or
in the fork of a tree; it adapts its fat body
to the unevenness of the bed with ap-
parent comfort; it then tucks its nose
down between its paws and curls its tail
about itself, making a huge, furry ball.
In all probability, the rings of gray and
black on the tail serve as protective color
to the animal sleeping in a tree during
the daytime, when sunshine and shadow
glance down between the leaves with ever-
changing light. The coon spends much
of its day asleep in some such situation,
and comes forth at night to seek its food.
In the fall, the coon lays on fat enough
to last it during its winter sleep. Usually
several inhabit the same nest in winter,
lying curled up together in a hollow tree,
and remain dormant during the most se-
vere weeks of winter, coming out during
periods of thaw.
The young are born in April; there are
from three to six in a litter; they are blind
and helpless at first, and are cared for
carefully by their parents; the family re-
mains together until fall. If removed from
their parents the young ones cry pitifully,
almost like babies. The cry or whistle of
the fully grown coon is anything but a
happy sound, and is quite impossible to
describe. I have been awakened by it many
a night in camp, and it always sounded
strange, taking on each time new quavers
and whimperings. As a cry, it is first cousin
to that of the screech owl.
The stories of pet coons are many. I
knew one which, chained in a yard, would
lie curled up near its post looking like an
innocent stone except for one eye kept
watchfully open. Soon a hen filled with
curiosity would come warily near, look-
ing longingly at remains of food in the
pan; the coon would make no move until
the disarmed biddy had come close to the
pan. Then there would be a scramble
and a squawk and with astonishing celerity
he would wring her neck and strip off her
feathers. Another pet coon was allowed
to range over the house at will, and finally
had to be sent away because he had
learned to open every door in the house,
including cupboard doors, and could also
open boxes and drawers left unlocked; and
I have always believed he could have
learned to unlock drawers if he had been
given the key. All coons are very curious,
and one way of trapping them is to sus-
pend above the trap a bit of bright tin; in
studying this glittering mystery, they for
get all about traps.
SUGGESTED READING — Mother Nature
Series, by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor
Marion E. Wesp
This pet raccoon is angry because she has
been taken from the shoulder of her mistress
and placed on a post to have her picture taken
ANIMALS
Troxell, Book i, Baby Animals, Book 3,
In Field and Forest; The Museum Comes
to Life, by Maribelle Cormack and Wil-
liam P. Alexander; The Pet Boole, by Anna
B. Comstock; Ringtail, by Alice C. Gall
and F. H. Crew; also, readings on page 214.
LESSON 61
THE RACCOON
LEADING THOUGHT — The raccoon lives
in hollow trees OT caves along the banks
of streams. It sleeps during the day and
seeks its food at night. It sleeps during
the winter.
METHOD — If there are raccoons in the
vicinity, ask the older boys to look for
their tracks near the streams and to de-
scribe them very carefully to the class.
The ideal method of studying the animal
is to have a pet coon where the children
may watch at leisure its entertaining and
funny performances. If this is impossible,
then follow the less desirable method of
having the pupils read about the habits
of the coon and thus arouse their interest
and open their eyes, so that they may make
observations of their own when oppor-
tunity offers. I would suggest the follow-
ing topics for oral or written work in
English:
"How and Where Coons Live and
What They Do "; " The Autobiography
of a Coon One Year Old "; " The Queer
Antics of Pet Coons "; " Stories of the
Coon's Relative, the Bear/7
OBSERVATIONS — i. Where have you
found raccoon tracks? How do they differ
from those of fox or dog? How far are the
foot prints apart? Can you see the heel
and toe prints? Do you see the tracks of
all four feet? Are the tracks in a straight
line like those of the cat? What is the
size of the track, the length, the breadth?
2. What do coons eat and how do they
get their food? Which of our crops are
they likely to damage? What other dam-
age do they do? Have you ever heard coons
cry or whistle during August nights in the
cornfields?
3. Why do raccoons like to live near
the water? What do they find of interest
there? How do they prepare their meat
before eating it? How does a coon handle
its meat while eating it?
4. What kind of fur has the coon? Why
does it need such a heavy covering? De-
scribe the color of the fur. Describe the
tail. Of what use is such a large and bushy
tail to this animal?
5. Describe the coon's face. How is it
marked? What is its expression? Describe
the eyes, ears, and nose. Has it teeth re-
sembling those of the cat and dog?
6. Describe the coon's feet. How many
toes on the front feet? How many on the
hind feet? How does this differ from the
cat and dog? How clo the front and hind
feet differ in appearance? Can both be
used as hands?
7. How do coons arrange themselves
for a nap in a tree? How do they cover
the head? How is the tail used? Do you
think this bushy tail used in this way
would help to keep the animal warm in
winter? Do coons sleep most by day or by
night?
8. At what time of year are coons fat-
test? Leanest? Why? Do they ever come
out of their nests in winter? Do they live
together or singly in winter?
9. At what time of year are the young
coons born? Do you know how they look
when they are young? How are they cared
for by their parents?
10. Are the coon's movements slow or
fast? What large animal is a near relative
of the coon?
THE WOLF
The study of the wolf should precede
the lessons on the fox and the dog. After
becoming familiar with the habits of
wolves, the pupils will be much better
able to understand the nature of the dog
and its life as a wild animal. In most lo-
calities, the study of the wolf must, of
course, be a matter of reading, unless the
pupils have an opportunity to study the
animal in zoological gardens.
MAMMALS
It might be well to begin this lesson
on the wolf with a talk about the gray
wolves which our ancestors had to con-
tend with, and also with stories of the
coyote or prairie wolf which has learned
to adapt itself to civilization and flourishes
in the regions west of the Rocky Moun-
tains, despite men and dogs. Literature is
rich in wolf stories. Although Kipling's
famous Mowgli Stories belong to the
realm of fiction, yet they contain inter-
esting accounts of the habits of the wolves
of India, and are based upon the hunter's
and tracker's knowledge of these animals.
We have many thrillingly interesting sto-
ries in our own literature which deal with
our native wolves. Some of the best are
noted in the suggested reading at the end
of this section.
K H. McCleery
Wolves, seldom seen now, once ranged over
many parts of North America
Leonard K. Beyer
A captive wolf
From some or all of these stories, the
pupils should get information about the
habits of the wolves. This information
may be incorporated in an essay or an
oral exercise and should cover the follow-
ing points: Where do the wolves live?
On what do they feed? How do they get
their prey? How do they call to each
other? Description of the den where the
young are reared. The wolfs cleverness
in eluding hunters and traps.
SUGGESTED READING — Animal Heroes,
Lives of the Hunted, and Wild Animals
I Have Known, all by Ernest Thompson
Seton; Watched by Wild Animals, by
Enos A. Mills; also, readings on page 214.
THE FOX
Do we not always, on a clear morning
of winter, feel a thrill that must have
something primitive in its quality at see-
ing certain tracks in the snow that some-
how suggest wildness and freedom! Such
is the track of the fox. Although it is
somewhat like that of a small dog, yet it
is very different. The fox has longer legs
than most dogs of his weight, and there
is more of freedom in his track and more
of strength and agility expressed in it. His
gait is usually an easy lope; this places the
imprint of three feet in a line, one ahead
of another, but the fourth is off a little
at one side, as if to keep the balance.
The fox lives in a den or burrow. The
only fox home which I ever saw was a
rather deep cave beneath the roots of a
sturnp, and there was no burrow or retreat
beyond it. However, foxes often select
woodchuck burrows, or make burrows of
their own, and if they are caught within,
they can dig rapidly, as many a hunter can
attest. The mother usually selects an open
ANIMALS
Red fox cubs
place as a den for the young foxes; often
an open field or sidehill is chosen for
this. The den is carpeted with grass and
is a very comfortable place for the fox
puppies.
The face of the red fox shows plainly
why he has been able to cope with man,
and thrive despite and because of him.
If ever a face showed cunning, it is his.
Its pointed, slender nose gives it an ex-
pression of extreme cleverness, while the
width of the head between the upstand-
ing, triangular ears gives room for a brain
of power. In color the fox is russet-red, the
hind quarters being grayish. The legs are
black outside and white inside; the throat
is white, and the broad, triangular ears are
tipped with black. The glory of the fox is
his " brush/' as the beautiful, bushy tail
is called. This is red, with black toward
the end and is white-tipped. This tail is
not merely for beauty, for it affords the fox
warmth during the winter, as anyone who
has observed the way it is wrapped around
the sleeping animal may see. But this
bushy tail is a disadvantage, if it becomes
bedraggled and heavy with snow and
sleet, when the hounds are giving close
chase to its owner. The silver fox and the
black fox are color phases of the red fox.
The fox is an inveterate hunter of the
animals of the field; meadow mice, rab-
bits, woodchucks, frogs, snakes, and grass-
hoppers are all acceptable food; he is also
destructive of birds. His fondness for the
latter has given him a bad reputation with
the farmer because of his attacks on poul-
try. Not only will he raid hen-roosts if
he can force entrance, but he catches
many fowls in the summer when they are
wandering through the fields. The way
he carries the heavy burden of his larger
prey shows his cleverness: he slings a hen
or a goose over his shoulders, keeping the
head in his mouth to steady the burden.
Mr. Cram says, in American Animals:
" Yet, although the farmer and the fox
are such inveterate enemies, they manage
to benefit each other in a great many ways
quite unintentionally. The fox destroys
numberless field mice and woodchucks
for the farmer and in return the farmer
supplies him with poultry, and builds con-
venient bridges over streams and wet
places, which the fox crosses oftener than
the farmer, for he is as sensitive as a cat
about getting his feet wet. On the whole,
I am inclined to believe that the fox gets
the best part of the exchange, for, while
the farmer shoots at him on every occa-
sion, and hunts him with dogs in the win-
ter, he has cleared the land of wolves and
panthers, so that foxes are probably safer
than before any land was ploughed.7'
The bark of the fox is a high, sharp
yelp, more like the bark of the coyote
than of the dog. There is no doubt a con-
siderable range of meaning in the fox's
language, of which we are ignorant. He
growls when angry, and when pleased he
smiles like a dog and wags his beautiful
tail.
Many are the wiles of the fox to mislead
dogs following his track: he often retraces
his own steps for a few yards and then
makes a long sidewise jump; the dogs go
on, up to the end of the trail pocket, and
try in vain to get the scent from that point.
Sometimes he walks along the top rails
of fences or takes the high and dry ridges
where the scent will not remain; he often
Verne Morton
The attentive ears and bright eyes of these
fox cubs show a keen interest in their sur-
roundings
MAMMALS
253
follows roads and beaten paths and also
goes around and around in the midst of
a herd of cattle or sheep so that his scent
is hidden; he crosses streams on logs and
invents various other devices too numer-
ous and intricate to describe. When
chased by dogs, he naturally runs in a
circle, probably so as not to be too far
from home. If there are young ones in the
den, the father fox leads the hounds far
away, into the next county if possible.
Perhaps one of the most clever tricks of
the fox is to make friends with the dogs.
I have known of two instances where a
dog and fox were daily companions and
playfellows.
The young foxes are born in the spring.
They are gray and woolly at first and are
fascinating little creatures, being exceed-
ingly playful and active. Their parents are
very devoted to them, and during all their
puppyhood the mother fox is a menace
to the poultry of the region, because the
necessity of feeding her rapidly growing
litter is upon her.
SUGGESTED READING — Biography of a
Silver Fox, by Ernest Thompson Seton;
The Fall of the Year, by Dallas L. Sharp;
Mother Nature Series, by Fannie W.
Dunn and Eleanor Troxell, Book i, Baby
Animals; The Pet Boofc, by Anna B. Corn-
stock; Red Fox, by Charles G. D. Roberts;
Skinny, the Gray Fox, by Agnes A. At-
kinson; Sprite, the Story of a Red Fox,
by Ernest H. Baynes; Wild Animals I
Have Known, by Ernest Thompson Seton;
also, readings on page 214.
LESSON 62
THE Fox
LEADING THOUGHT — The red fox is so
clever that it has been able, in many parts
of our country, to maintain itself despite
dogs and men.
METHOD — This lesson is likely to be
given largely from hearsay or reading.
However, if the school is in a rural district,
there will be plenty of hunters' stories
afloat, from which may be elicited facts
concerning the cunning and cleverness of
the red fox. In such places there is also
the opportunity in winter to study fox
tracks upon the snow. The lesson may well
be given when there are fox tracks for
observation. The close relationship be-
tween foxes and dogs should be empha-
sized.
OBSERVATIONS — i . Describe the fox's
track. How does it differ from the track
of a small dog?
2. Where does the fox make its home?
Describe the den. Describe the den in
which the young foxes live.
3. Describe the red fox, its color and
form, as completely as you can. What is
the expression of its face? What is there
peculiar about its tail? What is the use
of this great bushy tail in the winter?
4. What is the food of the fox? How
does it get its food? Is it a day or a night
hunter? How does the fox benefit the
farmer? How does it injure him? How
does the fox carry home its heavy game,
such as a goose or a hen?
5. Have you ever heard the fox bark?
Did it sound like the bark of a dog? How
does the fox express anger? Pleasure?
6. When chased by dogs, in what di-
rection does the fox run? Describe all of
the tricks which you know by which the
fox throws the dog off the scent.
7. When are the young foxes born?
How many in a litter? What color are
they? How do they play with each other?
How do they learn to hunt?
U. S. Bureau of Biol. Survey
Silver fox
ANIMALS
National Sportsman
English setter. This is the famous Brownie's Spot, field trial winner and bench show
champion
DOGS
Not only today but in ancient days, be-
fore the dawn of history, the dog was the
companion of man. Whether the wild
species from whence he sprang was wolf
or jackal or some other similar animal, we
do not know, but we do know that many
types of dogs have been tamed independ-
ently by savages, in the region where their
untamed relatives run wild. As the whelps
of wolves, jackals, and foxes are all easily
tamed, and are most interesting little crea-
tures, we can understand how they be-
came companions to the children of the
savage and barbarous peoples who hunted
them.
In the earliest records of cave dwellers,
in the picture writing of the ancient Egyp-
tians and of other ancient peoples, we find
record of the presence and value of the
dog. But man, in historical times, has been
able to evolve breeds that vary more in
form than do the wild species of the pres-
ent. There are 200 distinct breeds of dogs
known today, and many of these have
been bred for special purposes. The pale-
ontologists, moreover, assure us that there
has been a decided advance in the size
and quality of the dog's brain since the
days of his savagery; thus, he has been
the companion of man's civilization also.
It is not, therefore, to be wondered at that
the dog is now the most companionable,
and has the most human qualities and
intelligence of all our domesticated
animals.
Dogs run down their prey; it is a neces-
sity, therefore, that they be equipped with
legs that are long, strong, and muscular.
The cat, which jumps for her prey, has
much more delicate legs but has powerful
hips to enable her to leap. The dog's feet
are much more heavily padded than those
of the cat, because in running he must
not stop to save his feet. Hounds often
return from a chase with bleeding feet,
despite the heavy pads, but the wounds
MAMMALS
are usually cuts between the toes. The
claws are heavy and are not retractile; thus,
they afford a protection to the feet when
running, and they are also used for dig-
ging out game which burrows into the
ground. They are not used for grasping
prey like those of the cat and are used
only incidentally in fighting, while the
cat's claws are the most important weap-
ons in her armory. It is an interesting fact
that Newfoundland dogs, which are such
U. S. Dept. Agriculture
Boston terrier. This small popular breed is
one of the few to originate in America. It is
very companionable and highly intelligent
famous swimmers, have their toes some-
what webbed.
The dog's body is long, lean, and very
muscular, a fat dog being usually pam-
pered and old. The coat is of hair and is
not of fine fur like that of the cat. It is
of interest to note that the Newfoundland
dog has an inner coat of fine hair com-
parable to that of the mink or muskrat.
When a dog is running, his body is ex-
tended to its fullest length; in fact, it
seems to " lie flat/7 the outstretched legs
heightening the effect of extreme muscu-
lar effort of forward movement. A dog
is master of several gaits; he can run, walk,
trot, bound, and crawl.
The iris of the dog's eye is usually of
U. S. Dept. Agriculture
Beagle. These hounds hunt individually, in
pairs, or in packs; they are used chiefly for
hunting rabbits
a beautiful brown, although this varies
with breeds; in puppies, the iris is usually
blue. The pupil is round like our own; and
although dogs probably cannot see as well
in the dark as the cat, they see well at
night and in daylight they have keen sight.
The nose is so much more efficient than
the eyes, that it is on the sense of smell
the dog depends for following his prey
and for recognizing friend and foe. The
damp, soft skin that covers the nose has
in its dampness the conditions for carry-
ing the scent to the wide nostrils; these
are situated at the most forward part of
the face, and thus may be lifted in any
U. S. Dept. Agriculture
Greyhound. This swiftest of all large dogs
hunts by sight
ANIMALS
St. Bernard. These dogs stand about thirty
inches high and have an average weight of
175 pounds
direction to receive the marvelous impres-
sions, so completely beyond our compre-
hension. Think of being able to scent the
track of a fox made several hours previ-
ously, and not only to scent it, but to fol-
low it by scent for many miles without
ever having a glimpse of the fleeing foe! In
fact, while running, the dog's attention
seems to be focused entirely upon the
sense of smell, for I have seen hounds pass
within a few rods to the windward of the
fox they were chasing, without observing
him at all. Furthermore, according to
E. H. Baynes, the dog's sense of smell is
keen enough to distinguish the scent of
the particular creature he is hunting from
that of all others, and to distinguish the
scent of several animals from that of only
one. He knows the difference between
foot scent and body scent, and he can
immediately tell the scent of a wounded
animal from that of a dead one. He can
tell, moreover, the direction in which
foot scent leads, and some dogs, at least,
can follow a particular trail no matter
how many other scents have been super-
imposed upon it. It has been said that
the sense of smell in dogs, and especially
in hounds, is so acute that the amount of
odor required to stimulate the nose is too
slight to be expressed. When the nose of
a dog becomes dry it is a sign of illness.
A light fall of damp snow gives the dog
the best conditions for following a track
by scent. A hound, when on the trail,
will run until exhausted. There are many
authentic observations which show that
hounds have followed a fox for twenty-
four hours without food, and probably
with little rest.
Because the dog's sense of smell is so
important to him, he should never be
punished by being struck over the nose.
Nor should he be struck at all about the
head and ears, lest his hearing be dam-
aged. A dog is so sensitive to inflections
and tones of voice that a severe word is
usually punishment enough; if it seems
necessary to strike him, he should be
struck only on the foreshoulders and
sides. A folded newspaper is good for the
purpose.
The dog's weapons for battle, like those
of the wolf, are his tushes; with these
he holds and tears his prey; with them he
seizes the woodchuck or other small ani-
mal through the back and shakes its life
out. In fighting a larger animal, the dog
leaps against it and often incidentally
tears its flesh with his strong claws; but
he does not strike a blow with his foot
like the cat, nor can he hold his quarry
with it.
Dogs' teeth are especially fitted for their
work. The incisors are small and sharp; the
H. M. Isenhower
Pointer. These dogs are called pointers be-
cause of their habit of pointing at the con-
cealed game birds they have scented. This is
Isenhower's Flaro, a champion
MAMMALS
canine teeth or tushes are very long, but
there are bare spaces on the jaws so that
they are able to cross past each other; the
molar teeth are not adapted for grinding.,
like the teeth of a cow, but are especially
fitted for cutting, as may be noted if we
watch the way a dog gnaws bones, gnaw-
ing with the back teeth first on one side
and then on the other. In fact, a dog does
not seem to need to chew anything, but
simply needs to cut his meat in small
enough pieces so that he can gulp them
down without chewing. His powers of di-
gesting unchewed food are something that
the hustling American may well envy.
Mr. and Mrs. J. W. Page
Beagle pups. Beagles are small models of
foxhounds; they are not so swift as foxhounds,
but seem to have a keener sense of smell
Of all domestic animals, the dog is most
humanly understandable in expressing
emotions. If delighted, he leaps about giv-
ing ecstatic little barks and squeals, his
tail in the air and his eyes full of happy
anticipation. If he wishes to be friendly,
he looks at us interestedly, comes over to
smell of us in order to assure himself
whether he has ever met us before, and
then wags his tail as a sign of good faith.
If he wishes to show affection, he leaps
upon us and licks our face or hands with
his soft, deft tongue and follows us jeal-
ously. When he stands at attention he
holds his tail stiff in the air, and looks
up with one ear lifted as if to say, " Well,
what's doing? " When angry, he growls
and shows his teeth and the tail is held
rigidly out behind, as if to convince us
Helen F. Hill
English springer spaniel. No other family
of dogs contains so many recognized breeds
as the spaniel family — seven hunting and
two^ toy breeds. Formerly these dogs were
trained to flush or " spring " the game so that
swifter dogs or falcons could catch it; today
they are popular as all-purpose dogs
The Seeing Eye, Inc.
A Seeing^ Eye dog. The training of dogs to
lead the blind began in the United States; the
same methods have now become popular in
Europe. The Seeing Eye has headquarters in
New York City
ANIMALS
that it is really a continuation of his back- Baynes; The Story of Scotch, by Enos A.
bone. When afraid, he whines and lies flat Mills; Stickeen; the Story of a Dog, by
1 1 ,-» f^ —» T-> .* ^ T-* ^-vl 1 _ . * £.1 !_„!_' _ 1 _ 1 * 1 T 1 ~\ IT • TTrr-TTA • 1 TTTT T s-
upon his belly, often looking beseechingly
up toward his master as if begging not to
H. M. Isenhower
English pointer pups
be punished; or he crawls away out of
sight. When ashamed, he drops his tail
between his legs and with drooping head
and sidewise glance slinks away. When ex-
cited, he barks and every bark expresses
high nervous tension.
Almost all dogs that chase their prey
bark when so doing. This action would at
first sight seem foolish, in that it reveals
their whereabouts to their victims and
also adds an incentive to flight. These
dogs have been trained through many
generations and have been selected be-
cause of various pecul